Edition: True Tragedy of Richard IIIAnnotations: True Tragedy of Richard III
Edward … princes
The deaths of Edward IV and the princes in the Tower, unlike in Shakespeare’s play,
occur in view of the audience. See this edition’s General Introduction for further analysis.
Shore’s Wife
Daughter of a successful merchant and wife to goldsmith William Shore, Elizabeth Shore
became a notorious figure during and after her lifetime due to her affairs with public
figures including Edward IV and William, Lord Hastings. She was erroneously given
the name
Janein Thomas Heywood’s play Edward IV, a name with which she has become synonymous, although in this play she is referred to as
Shore’s wife.For more information, refer to this edition’s introduction and supplementary material.
The 1594 title page indicates the playwright’s priority for (and selling point of)
Shore’s wife’s story:
With a lamentable ende of Shores wife, an example for all wicked womenis centred and italicized. For further analysis of Shore’s wife’s role, see this edition’s General Introduction.
Queen’s … Players
The Queen’s Men.
Thomas Creede
A stationer whose career spanned 1582 to 1616, and who
dwelt at the sign of the Catharine Wheel, near the Old Swan, in Thames Street(Bullen 69).
William Barley
A bookseller who served an apprenticeship with the Drapers’ Company and trained with
bookseller Yarath James, who owned the shop at Newgate Market near Christ Church door.
Barley had his own shop in St. Peter upon Cornhill from 1592, but continued to sell
from the Newgate site, as shown by this title page (Johnson 12).
Christ Church door
Christ Church Greyfriars, in Newgate Street. The original thirteenth century monastic
church was used as a parish church at the time that Barley’s shop stood nearby and
was destroyed during the Great Fire of London in 1666. The edifice was rebuilt according
to the designs of Sir Christopher Wren, and was destroyed again during the Blitz.
Enter Truth … Poetry
They appear as prologue (and may have appeared later in epilogue in the form of messengers,
see Sc21 SD6) in an unusually extensive appearance of Senecan arguments to set out the narrative.
In contrast, this play’s prologue
only sets forth the story up to the point at which the stage action is to commence(Griffin 88).
To them
The ghost’s appearance warrants discussion between Truth and Poetry, which makes clear
that they have observed his entrance and his subsequent dropping of his shield. The
silent interaction between the ghost and the two allegorical figures would have been
a dramatic, meaningful moment. Each character would have been recognizable by their
dress, or indicative elements, as this interaction sets the scene for the remainder
of the play.
holding … shield
A shield expresses emblematic power, not only as a defensive tool, but also as an
expressive display object, representing heraldic status. As Fleischer notes,
itself an attribute of Minerva, Faith, and others, it also—in its ornamentation—can bear national or personal devices or even occasional messages(Fleischer 183). Clarence’s shield bears an expository message, an unusual device given the improbability of an audience reading it. This is solved once Clarence abandons his shield, so Truth and Poetry may read it. This is emblematic of the prologue scene itself, or,
as shield to Ghost, so Induction to play(Fleischer 184).
Cresce … vendicta
“Rise, blood! Blood is sated by blood! Rise, that which I wish for! I thirst, O I
thirst, I thirst, Vengeance!”
Greg credits 1844 editor Barron Field with
apparently reconstructingthe Latin as
Cresce cruor, sanguis satietur sanguine, cresce, / Quod spero citò. O citò, citò vendicta
(or sitio vindictam)! (Greg 1929 x). Griffin notes this is the first of three examples in the play where the author
flaunts his Latin quotations from Seneca […] though he also condescends to translate them(69).
vendicta
Irish notes this word as
Senecanismin the ghost’s
blood-thirstynature (126). The ghost calling for vengeance is a well-worn early modern theatre trope, which includes the ghost in Hamlet,
the prophesying ghost of Albanacht in Locrine, the ghost of the murdered royalty in The Battle of Alcazar, all of whom cry for vengeance(Fleischer 229).
Truth … player?
As verse, this collection of lines is difficult to scan, but given that the remainder
of this scene (featuring the personification of Poetry) is in verse, it makes little
sense to consider this segment as prose. The disjointed nature of Truth and Poetry’s
interactions could signal performance considerations, such as the two figures warily
circling each another or negotiating the space. Despite the difficulty in scanning
the meter, this short section is more useful as verse.
What makes thou
What are you doing here?
Shadows
Images of reality translated to the stage (OED shadow, n.6.b), or actors representing dead historical figures.
This passage provides the additional tinge of dramatic irony in spectral forms, or
phantoms (OED shadow, n.7). Walsh expands on this by noting that this is
a synonym for players in some early modern theatrical discourses, […] a metaphorical description of theatre itself, one that highlights the insubstantial, fleeting, ephemeral, and also dubious nature of performance(80).
Then will … bodies
Hunter notes,
Poetry can only (as in Plato) offer(16).shadows,but Truth can give substance to poetic shadows by showing things that actually happened
Therefore … leave
Go and let me.
Truth dismisses Poetry, as she
recognizes the stage as a space to transmit information and sees the emptiness and presumably false nature of Poetry as something which needs to be expunged(Walsh 80).
her
The feminine depiction of Truth evokes the Roman figure of Veritas, or her Greek counterpart,
Aletheia. Walsh suggests the feminine Truth:
might also draw on the veritas filia temporis motif. “Truth is the daughter of time,” a recurring trope in the sixteenth century, was often deployed in the context of religious polemic and was embodied in royal and civic pageants in celebration of both Mary and Elizabeth in the 1550s. (78)
pageant
Play with historical lessons for its audience about the fall of kings.
will Truth … player?
Poetry’s question could be literal: will the actor playing Truth also play other roles
in that performance? With casts of only 14, early modern actors frequently doubled
or played more than one role.
Poetry emphasises Truth is not always present on stage: her participation is noteworthy.
Tragedia-like
In the style of Greek tragedy.
done but late
Recently completed, undertaken in living memory.
late
Recently.
Richard Plantagenet
Richard of York, father to Edward IV, Clarence, and Richard III, appears in Shakespeare’s
H6 and was a chief antagonist to Henry VI.
descent
Transmission of title to heirs (OED descent, n.I.1.a).
Q spells this word as
dissent,or disagreement or loss of popularity (see Thomas, Prōsāpia), but this is a common alternate spelling for this word.
chronicles
Detailed and continuous register of events in order of time; a historical record,
(OED chronicle, n.1.a), understood to be facts delivered without bias.
The wars of the roses were recorded in numerous chronicles, including Fabyan, Holinshed,
Hall, Benet, Gregory, Hardyng, Croyland, Warkworth, Rous, and Waurin, amongst others.
Walsh suggests this reference works to:
claim authority, as if to reassure Poetry and the playgoers that the information being presented has an unimpeachable basis outside the theatre. The chronicles in this instance are a yardstick with which to measure other discourses of history. (85)
act of parliament
This timeline is muddled: the heir presumptive became unclear after the death of Humphrey,
duke of Gloucester, in 1447, but Richard of York’s candidacy was not confirmed until
the Act of Accord in 1460, Henry VI’s 38th year. Churchill (406) proposes that this unclear timeline is down to the playwright’s over-reliance on
Hall’s chronicle, which mistakenly suggests a date for this act of parliament (see
Hall, 249).
dignity
Honour, position, rank (OED dignity, n.2.a). The first of two references within 13 lines Prologue Sp9.
not contented … time
Not willing to wait patiently.
Yorkists declared civil war only months after the Act of Accord, where Richard of
York died.
outrage
Disorder, violence (OED outrage, n.1.a).
This word is repeated four times throughout the play (see Sc11 Sp2, Sc15 Sp1, Sc15 Sp5), always as an indicator of political or physical violence.
Wakefield … pitched
The Battle of Wakefield was waged on December 30 1460, in West Yorkshire, near Sandal
Castle. This conflict saw victory for Henry VI and the death of Richard of York.
Edward, now … king
In this compacted timeline, we enter 22 years after Edward’s 1461 coronation (as Truth
notes at Prologue Sp17), after Clarence’s death (1478) and before his own (1483).
Then Henry … Edward IV
Then Henry VI, after the death of Richard of York, was prevented from taking the throne
again, which resulted in the coronation of the next king, Edward IV.
style
Ceremonial designation, titles and dominions (OED style, n.II.18.a).
Henry passed these to Edward after defeat at the battle of Tewkesbury (1471).
But tell … Truth
A pertinent question, given the lack of clarity over Henry’s death. The actual circumstances
are murky, but he died in the Tower following the battle of Tewkesbury, likely murdered
(Griffiths).
attainted
Tainted, corrupted (OED attainted, adj.4).
Clarence’s interests on both sides led to his imprisonment and death.
Falsely of treason
Clarence’s interests on both sides and ongoing implications in various inheritance
schemes suggests the treason accusation is probably true.
unnaturally
Inhumanly, unfeelingly, cruelly, wickedly (OED unnaturally, adv.1). Both uses relate to Richard (see Sc11 Sp1).
butt
Cask usually measured between 108 and 140 gallons (OED butt, n.4.1.a).
The rumour of Clarence’s unusual death is corroborated in contemporary accounts (Jean de Roye, Mancini, the Crowland continuator), and has suggested links to Clarence’s alleged love for alcohol (Hicks).
Blood … revenge
As a vegetation metaphor, blood is a sign of regeneration, a natural birth in the
order of things, and renews the earth for new plant life to grow. The motto therefore
notes that while blood intentionally sprinkled will encourage new life to spring,
blood that is spilled through violence or murder is unnatural and thus demands vengeance.
Then Moses took the blood, and sprinkled it on the people, and said, Behold the blood of the covenant, which the Lord hath made with you concerning all these things(GNV, Exodus 24.8).
A man ill-shaped
The traditional notion of Richard as a hunchback may have been Tudor propaganda but
was partially proven as scoliosis upon the August 2012 discovery of Richard’s skeleton
in Leicester.
crooked-backed
For this line to scan, pronounced crookt-backed.
tyrannous
For this line to scan, pronounced tyrr’nous.
minority
The period of a person’s life prior to attaining full age (OED minority n.1.a and minor adj.I.3.a), which means he requires a guardian.
Edward V was twelve years of age at his father’s death, and was uncrowned king for
86 days before he was disinherited by Richard.
lord protector
The role of surrogate governor due to the minority of the sovereign (OED protector, n.2.a).
Richard was not named as such until after Edward’s death, but the playwright compacts
time to insert this pertinent point.
Gentles
People of gentle birth and rank (OED gentle, adj.1.b).
Truth redirects attention from Poetry to address the audience in a:
verbal gesture which prevents the prologue from being a self-contained exchange among ‘characters.ʼ Rather, it makes evident this opening has been calculated to involve the audience in the enterprise of historical representation. (Walsh 82)This phrase is repeated in the play’s epilogue (see Epilogue Sp1).
two-and-twenty
Repeated alliteration in discussion of Henry VI’s 22nd year (see Prologue Sp9). In this case, the dating is accurate: it incorporates both Edward IV’s first (1461–1470)
and second reigns (1471–1483) but elides Henry VI’s brief restoration (1470–1471).
like to die
Near to death.
Edward IV’s final illness set in over Easter 1483, but he had time to set his business
in order and appoint Richard protector.
duke his brother
Richard of Gloucester.
two sons … daughters
Not including illegitimate issue, Edward had ten children: three boys and seven girls.
The two sons noted are Edward, prince of Wales, and Richard, duke of York. Only five
daughters are named, which is down to More:
Elizabeth, whose fortune and grace was after to be queen, wife unto King Henry the Seventh, and mother unto the Eighth; Cecily not so fortunate as fair; Brigette, who, representing the virtue of her whose name she bear, professed and observed a religious life in Dartford Priory, Kent, a house of close nuns; Anne, that was after honorably married unto Thomas, then Lord Howard and after Earl of Surrey; and Katherine sic, which long time tossed in either fortune, sometime in wealth, often in adversity. (see Master Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)More does not mention George, Margaret, or Mary.
excuse … matter
Pardon the play’s length because the content will be entertaining.
Wend
Go, proceed (OED wend, v.II.8.a).
As actors who will take other roles in the play, Truth invites Poetry to leave the
stage so that they may participate: we have no reason to believe that, as in The Spanish
Tragedy, they would stay to watch. A secondary layer offers further interpretation:
be transformed(OED wend, v.I.4.b) implicates their impending change of costume and character, which offers the meaning to the actors.
Scene 1
Probably a prose scene mistakenly treated as verse by the typesetter, or, as McMillin
and MacLean posit, a company-sponsored scribe, who expected verse and misinterpreted
pauses as end-stopped verse lines: this mystery scribe
hears the end of a line, but the actor is only pausing in the syntax of prose. As a result, the scribe writes a blank verse that is not being spoken(117).
Edward IV … bed
Edward’s entrance, sick in his bed, would include curtains which are drawn after his
death. The bed would have been pushed on stage through a door or opening, or potentially
from a discovery space. As Thomson notes,
if, as this direction seems to indicate, the bed was out on the stage the most straightforward reading is that it was curtained(36). There are two beds in this play, the second the site of the princes’ murder.
Lord Hastings
This scene dramatizes how Hastings, a long-time loyalist to Edward, has maintained
his antagonism to the Woodville faction. Ironically, accusations of collusion with
Woodvilles led to his summary execution in June 1483.
Marquess
Q records the title of Dorset, marquess, as
Marcus,as though it were a name. Greg proposes this a scribe’s mishearing of the word Marquess (1929, vi). This edition corrects to
Marquesson all occasions.
to them Richard
Richard enters anonymously, not afforded the coup de theatre of Shakespeare (see R3 1.1.1.s.d.). Rather than appear at the point of triumph, this Richard enters quietly as an observer
during a sensitive moment, without a single line. His would have been a striking,
mysterious figure, and his presence is a reminder of the power of a mute character.
Churchill argues that this entrance is a corrupted stage direction left over from
an earlier text, and that Richard does not actually appear, and dismisses the potential
of a mute Richard in this scene (416).
in all happiness
In all good fortune, success, prosperity (OED happiness, n.1.a).
Hastings knows Edward is soon to die; adding this phrase to his customary greeting
lets Hastings demonstrate his sensitivity.
Dorset
Speech headings corrected from Q’s
Marcusfor clarity of naming.
An honorable … king
May honorable age, with the richness of Croesus’ wealth, extend the hours of the king’s
life.
Croesus’
A Lydian king synonymous with fabulous wealth.
Rich as Croesuswas a contemporary proverb (Tilley C832).
hourly attend
The actor who plays Dorset may pick up the same sycophancy in flattering the king;
alternately, his sincerity may mock Hastings. Dorset’s line reminds us of Edward’s
quickly-failing health.
peers
Members of hereditary nobility (OED peers, n.4.a).
Given Dorset’s marginal nobility, with minor family connections until his mother married
Edward (Pugh), this equation of the two may be unwelcome for Hastings.
unthankfulness
Ingratitude (OED unthankfulness, n.1). Dorset clarifies in the next line (see Sc1 Sp5).
he that … here
God who put me in my death-bed.
Edward was not renowned for his piety, unlike his predecessor, Henry VI. Edward’s
notoriety was due to his womanizing, his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, and his
pre-contract to Lady Eleanor Talbot, which might bring his death-bed piety into question
(Horrox).
seen … all
Evident.
stroke
Crushing act of divine chastisement or vengeance (OED stroke, n.1.3.a). The brutality of this phrase shows Edward expects retribution.
malice
Active ill will or hatred(OED malice, n.I.1.a).
This word appears on six more occasions in this play, demonstrating the angry tenor
of the subject matter (see Sc1 Sp6, Sc4 Sp1, Sc4 Sp11, Sc8 Sp16, Sc9 Sp13, Sc9 Sp13).
envy
The Woodvilles were the object of Yorkist innuendo and scorn for their perceived social
climbing. Even so, this play presents the Mother Queen as a strong, resourceful figure
worthy of the play’s epilogue as direct ancestor to Elizabeth I.
sedition
Dissent, disorder (OED sedition, n.1.a).
In the first blush of the Yorkist reign, the risk of Lancastrian uprisings were common.
enemy
Adversary, antagonist, opponent(OED enemy, n.I.1.a) to their own advancement. This word appears nine times, five linked with matters of pride.
league of amity
Union based on friendship.
The enmity was ongoing and was based in political jealousy over favor. Despite Edward’s
efforts, he could not heal this rift.
you may … soul
Edward’s self-serving request is canny in understanding that by leaving his son as
heir, such dysfunction would be dangerous. His hope is the act of swearing fealty
will build support for the future king.
celestial
From the heavens (OED celestial, adj.2.a). Despite his flaws, Edward assumes he is bound for paradise.
decease
Death.
wise … counsel
Edward establishes he will not choose between his closest advisor (Hastings) and his
family (Dorset), and that he hopes both sides will counsel the new king.
bring comfort
The factions in Edward IV’s court were a cause for worry, with the knowledge that
exiles awaited an opportunity to return, feared as a potential precursor to civil
war.
What
Suggests a pause, as opportunity for both men to speak, but neither takes the invitation.
Since this temporary halt speaks to each man’s reluctance to apologize first, they
might exchange an unfriendly glance.
resolute
Constant, firm, steadfast (Florio, Costante). Edward repeats the coupling of this word with ambition (see Sc1 Sp8).
submit
Consent, comply (OED submit, v.I.1.a).
This word is used four times in this play, all in the next thirty lines, as surrender
to the king’s will.
my father
Elizabeth has a more significant role in this play than in Shakespeare: as the hope
for the future, she is the one to unify the warring parties.
mitigate your wrath
Lessen the violence of our feud.
ambitious
Ruthless. This reference to ambition supplies another stress on its role in the feud
(see Sc1 Sp6).
last … death
Edward is near death, but he clearly uses his state to manipulate an agreement.
courteous
Gracious (OED courteous, adj.2.a).
The obsolete word curtuous, defined in Baret as “gentle, kind” (Baret, curtuous) is the original spelling here.
of
From.
head
Arrow-tip (OED head, n.II.i.16.a).
Dorset puns on the head Hastings soon loses from his shoulders.
losses
Costs of defeat (OED loss, n.2.d).
To complete the archery imagery, Dorset equates wagers placed on a match to the losses
their enmity brings society.
greater … this
Edward’s inability to bring Dorset and Hastings to accord is a reminder of his weakness.
This reunion, he felt, should have been simple, had he his full strength.
I take … both
The rivalry is for Edward’s final approval; when he rejects them both the stakes are
raised, as his final decrees may disadvantage both.
an’t … majesty
If your majesty pleases.
mine enemy
Not necessarily only Dorset, but any who mistrust the Woodville faction, if Hastings
appears to reach across the divide, as Richard’s silent presence makes more pertinent,
as he will later use this information to doom him.
Ah, yield, … marquess
Edward echoes Elizabeth’s plea and prefaces the unification they hope for.
content
Satisfied (OED content, adj.I.2.a).
This extension of Elizabeth’s
contentedindicates satisfaction that Hastings acquiesced first (see Sc1 Sp16).
foul offence
Dorset offers his chest to his enemy’s blade to apologize for upsetting his king,
not for any wrong done to Hastings.
than
Rather than.
take … hand
Hastings offers his hand first, but Dorset does not accept it immediately, which sets
the potential of Hastings standing with arm outstretched for five lines of dialogue;
dropping his proffered hand in annoyance; or a physical reaction (see Sc1 Sp21). More records this handshake:
there in his presence as by their words appeared, each forgave other, and joined their hands together, when (as it after appeared by their deeds) their hearts were far asunder(see Master Thomas More, Undersheriff of London).
league of amity
Hastings repeats Edward’s earlier phrasing as a public show of support (see Sc1 Sp6).
not … deed
Dorset echoes Hastings almost precisely, to suggest mockery or even disbelief. His
statement questions Hastings’s vow and actions.
to have … withal
Dorset’s much more graphic description of Hastings’ death strives to top its equivalent
statement, and might be played as a humorous final attack under the guise of forgiveness
(see Sc1 Sp20).
in piecemeals
Into small pieces (OED piecemeal, n.I.2.a), or
one piece at a time; little by little, by degrees,in stages (by piecemeals, OED piecemeal, n.I.2.b).
fowls … air
Carrion-eaters, scavengers, like raptors, crows, ravens, gulls.
allegiance
Note the parallel to Hastings’s two references to
entreaty(Sc1 Sp9), which are pleas; Dorset makes clear he is allied to the king, not simply someone obeying a command.
forever
Dorset disingenuously echoes Hastings’ earlier phrasing to emphasise its hyperbole
(see Sc1 Sp20).
for confirming … it
To seal the compact.
confusion
Damnation or overthrow, ruin (OED confusion, n.1.a).
The treble repetition of the word seals the chaos about to begin (see Sc1 Sp6). Later, Richard uses the same word to describe what would happen if his plot to
kill the princes became known (see Sc10 Sp25).
Ludlow
The prince of Wales and duke of York lived at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire until their
father’s death.
the rest … kindred
More notes,
adjoined were there unto him other of the same party, and, in effect, every one as he was nearest of kin unto the queen so was planted next about the prince(see Master Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). This notion backfired as Richard used the confluence of Woodvilles as ammunition to claim treason.
be unto … me
Presumably, respectful and attentive.
thirteen … most
This is relatively accurate: Edward V was 12 years, 5 months old when his father died,
and probably died before his thirteenth birthday.
my brother
Richard, duke of Gloucester, the first reference to him in this scene, even as he
reacts throughout. His reactions might vary, depending on actors’ choice: he may in
fact be a comforting presence for his brother. More and Hall place the nomination
of protector at a council meeting prior to Edward’s arrival from Ludlow (see Prologue Sp7) (Wilson 302). The playwright may have gleaned this information from Francis Segar’s poem on Gloucester
in The Mirror for Magistrates.
give thee this
While this could simply refer to Edward’s command that Elizabeth be loyal to her brother,
an actor may play this as offering a kiss or, less likely, a gift for Elizabeth to
take. A minor change in punctuation (
give thee this. (he kisses her) Be loyal […]) offers a different option for the actor.
be loyal … brother
Elizabeth’s later union with Richmond is an implicit fulfillment of this request,
as she refuses to marry her brothers’ murderer.
authority
Role and time as sovereign.
scepter and crown
An ornamental rod or wand (often of gold and jewelled) borne in the hand as a symbol of regal or imperial authority(OED sceptre, n.1.a);
a circular ornamental headdress […] worn by a monarch as a mark or symbol of sovereignty(OED crown, n.I.1.a). Together, symbolized power or authority; royal or imperial dignity, sovereignty, supremacy.
Tacit acknowledgement that the king’s son has the king’s preferment as heir. As Churchill
(407–408) notes, this parting speech is borrowed directly from Hall:
Oh I am so sleepy, that I must make an end, and now before you all I commend my soul to almighty God, my savior and redeemer: my body to the worms of the earth, my kingdom to the Prince my son, and to you my loving friends my heart, my trust, and my whole confidence. (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York)
draw the curtains
Close the bed-curtains. Beds were usually thrust on stage through one of the stage
doors. Curtains would hang from the bed’s canopy, so the bed need not be removed before
the king dies. With the specific stage direction for the king’s death, the audience
witnesses the death (see Sc1 SD4). See Leslie Thomson’s
Beds on the Early Modern Stage.
unto … spirit
And Jesus cried with a loud voice, and said, Father, into thine hands I commend my spirit. And when he thus had said, he gave up the ghost(GNV, Luke 23:46).
Fortune
Shore’s wife’s first phrase is apt, given her depiction as one on whom Fortune had
smiled, only to be dashed to penury. From her preferment as the king’s favorite mistress,
Rowan notes
it seems certain that she ended her days as a beggar and prostitute(458), while some traditions inaccurately suggest Shoreditch earned its name as the ditch in which her pauper’s grave lay.
famous
Renowned, glorious, excellent (Florio, Famoso).
Fame is an attribute Shore’s wife had long been accused of craving; her prior hubris
already causes difficulty in this first scene. Later, Richard calls Shore’s wife a
famous strumpet,to bring this phrase full circle (see Sc10 Sp9).
mirrors
Shore’s wife repeats this imagery after she hears of the king’s death (see Sc2 Sp17). This evokes Churchyard’s poem (see How Shore’s Wife was Despoiled) in The Mirror for Magistrates, one of this play’s sources, and acts as a specific
warning to sinners (Churchill 412).
magnanimity
Courage, fortitude (OED magnanimity, n.2). Repeated alliteration heightens Shore’s wife as a character to be censured for
daring to question Fortune.
I would … me
With the king’s sickness close to her mind, Shore’s wife notes her tenuous hold on
luck, and wishes she had no notoriety or taste of fame.
condemn
Doom, damn (OED condemn, v.5.a and v.5.b).
Shore’s wife will later repeat the same term (see Sc2 Sp23).
so may … down
Shore’s wife does not appear to believe her fall inevitable: indeed, Fortuna was a
fickle goddess who acted on her whims, both to raise a person up and drop them down.
the king … sick
A virile, handsome king in his youth, Edward’s health became a matter of concern in
his waning days:
with over-liberal diet, somewhat corpulent and burly, and natheless not uncomely; he was of youth greatly given to fleshly wantonness […] This fault not greatly grieved the people, for neither could any one man’s pleasure stretch and extend to the displeasure of very many, and was without violence. (Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)He probably declined due to pneumonia or diabetes, exacerbated by his extravagant lifestyle: the poem describing Edward’s sudden death in The Mirror for Magistrates is tellingly entitled
How King Edward the Fourth, Through his Surfeiting and Untemperate Life, Suddenly Died in the Midst of his Prosperity, the Ninth of April, Anno 1483(236), while Baldwin notes Edward’s lifestyle in his Mirror poem on Rivers:
The king was bent too much to foolish pleasure, / In banqueting he had so great delight: / This made him grow in grossness out of measure. / Which as it kindleth carnal appetite, / So quencheth it the liveliness of the spirit, / Whereof ensue such sickness and diseases, / As none can cure, save death, that all displeases. (see How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned)
for … king
We are not told how long it has been, but given Edward died surrounded by two courtiers,
his brother, and his daughter (conspicuously not his queen) indicates the absence
of amorous thoughts in his last days.
approached
Loomed, impended.
I have … all
Shore’s wife’s generosity was well documented:
where the king took displeasure, Shore’s wife would mitigate and appease his mind; where men were out of favor, she would bring them in his grace; for many who had highly offended, she obtained pardon; of great forfeitures she got men remission; and finally, in many weighty suits, she stood many men in great stead either for none or very small rewards. (see More Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London; More History, 49–50)Churchyard repeats such a perspective in his Mirror for Magistrates entry:
I took delight in doing each man good, / Not scratting all myself as all were mine, / But looked whose life in need and danger stood, / And those I kept from harm with cunning fine. (see How Shore’s Wife was Despoiled)
still ready
Will in future.
would deny
Shore’s wife was particularly persuasive with Edward:
But the merriest was this Shore’s wife, in whom the king therefore took special pleasure. For many he had, but her he loved(see More as quoted in Holinshed Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London; History, 49). Chute’s version of Shore’s wife boasts of how she manipulated Edward by withholding affection (see Beauty Dishonored Written Under the Title of Shore’s Wife). In Churchyard’s Mirror for Magistrates poem, Shore’s wife claims
I governed him that ruled all this land: / I bare the sword, though he did wear the crown(see How Shore’s Wife was Despoiled).
want
Go without, suffer.
nothing … comfort me
While renowned for her dalliances, her position as mistress prevented her from inheriting
money or property on Edward’s death. As a pseudo-widow, she faces loss of her sole
income.
my foes … triumph
The public perception of Shore’s wife as social climber and (later) witch indicates
she did not ingratiate herself with others in Edward’s court.
scape
Escape, recover.
that blow … cold
So that no matter how cold the winter storms blow.
throughly
Fully, completely, perfectly (OED throughly, adv.1.a), as in
wash me throughly from mine iniquitie(GNV, Psalms 2.2).
Mistress Shore
One of only two forms of address for Shore’s wife, implicit emphasis of her perceived
promiscuity combined with the shame of an adulteress, having abandoned her husband
for the king. Even if William Shore were complicit in the arrangement (as Heywood
sympathetically illustrates in his play Edward IV), the moral judgment seems embedded.
come … with him
Lodowick’s go-between role emphasises the scandal. Hastings is quoted in Dolman’s
poem in the Mirror for Magistrates:
Shore’s wife was my nice cheat. / The holy whore, and eke the wily peat: / I fed his lust with lovely pieces so, / That God’s sharp wrath I purchased, my just woe. (see How the Lord Hastings was Betrayed)And later describes her as his
tender piece(see How the Lord Hastings was Betrayed).
recovered
Restored; regained, brought back(OED recovered, adj.1). Lodowick quibbles on how death
recoveredhis soul back to God.
He hath recovered
A political lie.
Lodowick has not been sent to deliver news of Edward’s death, but to deliver her to
Hastings, who would presumably report it.
long looked for
For years anticipated and hoped to reach.
mend
Improve, heal (OED mend, v.I.5.a). Mistress Shore means physically; Lodowick hedges to mean spiritually.
greatest … torments
Edward’s earthly burden as opposed to the burden of the enmity resolved prior to death.
Lodowick repeats the term Edward uses prior to his death (see Sc1 Sp8).
The nobles … them
Lodowick’s knowledge of Hastings’ mind allows aspersions that the lords’ agreement
was a false show for the king’s benefit.
ended
Lodowick says the agreement ended the moment Edward died, but his phrasing hints it
remains in place for now. Suggesting
but fewdenotes surprise it is intact.
Ah me, … woman
Shore’s wife’s immediate reaction to consider her own loss, rather than the loss of
the king, demonstrates an awareness of how much her financial survival depended on
Edward.
change
Adapting Lodowick’s phrase to her shift in security (see Sc2 Sp16). Arguably, she can’t have believed she was set for life, but the king’s relatively
young age (almost 41 at death) suggests the younger woman felt her future more secure.
when I … lands
Lodowick is fictional: no historical land exchange is recorded. Even so, in this situation,
as Lodowick is attached to Hastings, a Yorkist loyalist, we can infer Lodowick’s (fictional)
lands were confiscated by the Lancastrians, and when the regime changed, Shore’s wife
had them returned.
mirror
A person or thing embodying something to be avoided; an example, a warning(OED mirror, n.I.2).
The repeated imagery emphasises her fragility and how she will later reflect back
the shortcomings of those who look on her (see Sc2 Sp1). The reflective nature of the stage itself as a mirror is a common parallel, which
dates to at least Roman times.
unconstant
Inconstant, fickle, changeable (OED unconstant, adj.1.a).
Shore’s wife repeats the phrase at Sc2 Sp21.
one friend
King Edward IV.
tree
A familiar botanical image that equates the king to a sturdy trunk, but also evolves
into a reference to a
family tree.
A metaphor for the central trunk of the king and the dependent branches of his followers.
Shakespeare uses a similar image (see R3 2.2.41).
never abide me
An attitude directly adapted from Churchyard’s poem on Shore’s wife in The Mirror
for Magistrates:
But well was he that could procure my fall: / His brother was mine enemy most of all, / Protector then, whose vice did still abound, / From ill to worse till death did him confound. (see How Shore’s Wife was Despoiled)Chute, too, uses similar hyperbole in his poem on Shore’s wife: in it, Richard calls Shore’s wife
the monster of her age(see Beauty Dishonored Written Under the Title of Shore’s Wife). Churchill, however, questions the especial rancor that Richard is supposed to have held for Shore’s wife, as there is no material evidence of any interactions between the two until it was useful to blame her for Hastings’s corruption (411). Following that, Richard’s disdain appears falsely moralistic, as More records:
What manner of folk Edward most favored, we shall for his honor spare to speak of; howbeit this wot you well all, that whoso was best, bear alway least rule, and more suit was in his days made unto Shore’s wife, a vile and abominable strumpet, than to all the lords in England, except unto those that made her their protector, which simple woman was well named and honest till the king, for his wanton lust and sinful affection, bereft her from her husband, a right honest, substantial young man among you. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)
to the death
Violently, vehemently.
whom
Because I was the woman who.
think well of
Trust in, have faith in.
alway
Always, ultimately (OED alway, adv.1). Repeated twice in quick succession for its only appearance in this play.
For he … men
Edward has always been kind to me, even though the world is fickle and men change
quickly. Edward’s neglect in providing for her after his death contradicts this kindness
somewhat.
fickle
False, deceitful, treacherous(OED fickle, adj.1.a). Secondary meaning of changeable and inconstant by noting her enemies may reverse course.
think … money
Have remembered the money you owe me.
With thanks … for.
Morton offers gratitude, not financial interest: the Citizen refuses more promises
in lieu of his payment.
But sir, … marvel
The Citizen reacts negatively to Morton’s request to bear with him, perhaps with a
non-verbal or physical cue. This provokes Morton’s immediate accusation of greed in
the face of uncertainty.
our own
The direction of our future. The Citizen assumes Morton means his personal fortune.
Where nothing … right
When there is no money, not even the king could demand payment. Proverbial:
you cannot get blood from a stone(Kelly 227, Tilley W107).
And I … pardon
Each favor is fictional, but are representative of Shore’s wife reputed kindness.
Now, Mistress … you?
Despite noting his debt, Morton’s question is unavoidably ghoulish, knowing the king
is dead. This is the first instance of Shore’s wife as a public spectacle.
Citizen
This speech is originally assigned to Morton, but the reference to a son is persuasive
enough to correct this to the Citizen, the only character to mention a son (see Sc2 Sp45).
good father
Polite address, which suggests (along with his reference to a son) that the Citizen
is older than the others.
The better … he
He’s all the better thanks to you.
bear us company
Come with us to form a sort of procession.
thinks … coming
The reunion between Shore’s wife and Hastings has been delayed due to Edward IV’s
illness.
but by … leave
If I may apologize for my impertinence (OED leave, n.1 and P.1.a). Spoken out of Shore’s wife’s earshot.
ace … maw
A trump card in a trick-taking game of chance (OED maw n.4.1a, hist).
A now-rare card game, often referred to as
five finger.As a trick-taking game, maw depends on the luck of the cards dealt, and the ways in which suits are stolen from opposing players. The ace of hearts was maw’s third trump card behind the five and jack, so the Citizen suggests Shore’s wife has allied herself to the next most powerful man in the
deck,after losing her first two trumps in William Shore and Edward IV (Parlett, Historic Card Games).
even … bake
Their circumstances will be shaped by their own actions. Compare
as you bake, so shall you brew(Tilley B654).
an
If.
cold customers
Poor debtors, people of questionable morality unwilling to pay.
Mass
By the mass, a mild curse.
meet … better
Discover my other debtors are also unwilling to pay.
keep … household
Go greatly into debt due to unpaid loans.
The hour … absence
Given the time of day, leave me alone.
Renowned … worthy
Sycophantic endorsement of Richard’s right to be the protector.
far deserves … king
Is much worthier to be the king.
govern
Take responsibility for, protect (OED govern, v.1.a) but secondarily, control and discipline (OED govern, v.1.b). Catesby hints at how proper control of the young king will benefit Richard.
young
The young king’s youth is a sticking point, given the turmoil (and war) that surrounded
the last child king, Henry VI.
Plantagenet’s
My father’s inherited birthright.
but his son
The rule of male primogeniture was customary in England based on the statutes of Common
Law, but was not formalized until the reign of Henry VII. The flexibility in inheritance
processes (given multiple claims from both sides) mean Richard’s contradiction, where
he supports the king’s son right to inherit and then stakes his own right, demonstrates
the fluidity of these claims.
And who, … brother?
Richard knows he has slipped in the line of succession and bemoans the laws which
disadvantage him. Arguably, as his father negotiated his own right to the throne with
Henry VI, Richard believes there are loopholes.
the title … god
Churchill observes the similarity between this line and 1 Tamburlaine’s
To be a king is half to be a god. / A god is not so glorious as a king(481).
that in … riches
Acts befitting the valiant.
never … life
Never offered or endowed but by the quality of deeds, and not revoked even in death.
honor
The inheritance Richard of York negotiated, only to be killed before he could reign.
brother’s sons?
Whether he had completed his martial tasks for self-interest or for his house, Richard
reasons that placing children as inheritors of his family legacy tarnishes the work
undertaken.
hop … denies me
Writhe after being beheaded, any who dare oppose him. Compare Shakespeare (see 2H6).
Have … sight
Impediments dehumanized as logs, with specific reference to scripture:
suffer me to cast out the mote out of thine eye, and behold, a beam is in thine own eye? Hypocrite, first cast out that beam out of thine own eye, and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother’s eye. (GNV, Matthew 7:4–5)Essentially, Richard can now see clearly.
shadow
Dark foreboding.
The young king stands between Richard and the glory of the crown and casts a shadow.
Further, the playwright makes good on Poetry’s promise of shadows (see Prologue Sp4) (Walsh 80).
disinherit
Were Edward V crowned, the heir presumptive would be his younger brother, the duke
of York; were Edward V to have children, they would move ahead of Richard in the succession.
Richard has a slender window of time to claim the throne before it is gone entirely.
the yoke … brother
The burden of Richard’s service for Edward IV.
By metaphore it is a seruitude or a bon¬dage(Lily, Iugum, vertex, siue cacumen montis).
This is a similar sticking point in Shakespeare (see R3 1.3.119–123).
as I … reign
Richard recognizes the difference; as protector he rules England, but does not reign
over it. He has control but desires the status (see Sc3 Sp3).
sharpest shower
Most sudden tempestuous downpour.
The rendering of this phrase in Q gives
sharpest shoure,which might be easily misread as sharpest hour, or “most intense conflict,” in martial terms. There is no doubt that
showeris correct, however, both in the reign/shower pun and in the prior use of this term (Glaser (56) records its use in a fifteenth century ballad Index 5. Bodleian MS 3938, for example) to describe a swift, violent cloudburst. Proverbially, however,
the sharpest shower wears itself out soonest,meaning Richard also refers to the fleeting nature of his power. Literally, this can also be read in terms of a volley of arrows: a very sharp shower indeed.
the babes … beds
Richard proposes grisly fates for the seemingly disposable princes, or
babes: target-practice for soldiers, food for fish, and fertilizer for flowerbeds. Hall notes a rumour on the boys’ resting-place: reportedly submerged in lead-lined coffins in
a place called the Black-deeps at the Thames mouth, so that they should never rise up nor be seen again(Hall). Hall’s detail is gleaned from John Rastell’s 1529 The Pastime of People or the Chronicles of Divers Realms (Bullough 3.225).
make them away
Kill them.
Page
The style of speech here and in the following line are unusual for a stranger (see
Sc3 Sp6). These lines are assigned to Percival in Q, but given Richard’s
But what’s he with thee,I posit these are misattributed to Percival when they should be the Page’s lines (see Sc3 Sp7). Reassigning these lines to the Page means that Percival does not speak until invited (see Sc3 Sp10). The speech assignment of
Percis noted as irregular or doubtful by Greg (1929, ix), Churchill agrees (420).
shall be
Is soon to come. The Page’s presumption indicates the plot has support.
Exit Page
Shifting the Page’s exit to this position means he reacts directly to Richard’s command.
give place
Get out.
Rise, … fall
Further to Richard’s rejection of hell and damnation, self-reassurance over his plot
(see Sc3 Sp3).
devise
Invent.
The scheme against the boys is new. Richard’s amazement at Buckingham’s support fortifies
his belief in the scheme.
laugh … change
Not literal laughter.
Richard refers to a Tudor characterization of Fortune as laughing at humanity, as
we see in More’s Fortune Verses:
Fortune at them laughs; and in her throne, / Amid her treasure and wavering riches, / Proudly she hovers as Lady and Empress(121–123). For further discussion of Fortune’s laughter, see Allyna E. Ward’s
Fortune Laughs and Proudly Hovers.
Richard acknowledges the fickleness of Fortune and the changes she enacts but will
take his chances if they progress as he anticipates. As Ribner notes,
Richard III, the villain, never calls upon God for assistance, or attributes events to the will of Providence. He relies entirely on himself, and it always upon fortune that he calls for aid(84).
I will … colours
I am afraid of no enemy or opponent (OED colour, n.III.20.b).
Colours refer to flags or ensigns of armies, and came to be understood as
tricksor opposing schemes.
fame conquers death
Richard looks ahead to chroniclers who will document his reign, but also the playwright
and spectators who give him fame in this playhouse. Richard’s regular use of direct
address suggests that he feeds off the audience and desires to ingratiate himself
to them. Richard feeds off the audience’s energy, and takes their attention as approval
for his actions. Later, the Page will point out the dilemma he identifies in his own
(and the audience’s) collusion, also in direct address.
long foes
Rivals for a long time. Richard and Buckingham’s rivalry stretched to the reign of
Henry VI, for Buckingham’s family links to the Woodvilles and distant claim to the
throne. After Edward IV’s death, Buckingham initiated contact with Richard to secure
his allegiance (Davies).
Thy trust … lord
The trust Buckingham has in you.
utter … unto thee
Tell you everything I’m thinking about.
allay
To bring down, overthrow (a person, nation, etc.); to reduce to submission(OED allay, v.1.3).
proud
Haughty, arrogant, superior (OED proud, adj.I.1.a).
Woodville social climbing through Edward IV’s wife was a common complaint.
friend
Political ally.
whate’er … devise
Whatever his plan.
Because Richard has already decided the only course is to kill the boys, it is telling
that he suggests Buckingham’s input is welcome. Buckingham does not believe himself
a pawn. The providence Richard thanks comes in the form of Buckingham’s suggestion,
and by assenting he secures his loyalty (see Sc3 Sp11).
prince
Buckingham is only concerned with King Edward V, although obviously if the young king
were to miscarry, his brother would be the next target. At this stage the bastardy
slur has not been formulated.
might do well
May be effective.
our purpose
Richard has a larger plan than simply separating the boys from their relatives, but
is happy to share, or credit Buckingham with, the initial idea.
he
The young king.
instant
Event, occasion.
The young king’s arrival in London, not the coronation.
so play … part
Self-conscious theatricality is a feature of Richard’s view of himself.
Richard’s
rolewill be significant not solely in the separation of the boys and their uncles, but also in the aftermath to become king: a notable metatheatrical reference.
more … look for
Richard declares his ambition clearly here: he wishes to be king and is unwilling
to accept less.
Adjudge thou
You be the judge; You determine the meaning.
Richard has just declared his ambition, if in oblique terms, preferring to claim the
idea is Buckingham’s. Further, Richard’s refusal to mention his ambition in front
of Percival demonstrates his care not to be accused of treason and his distrust of
Buckingham.
it
The actor might play this moment in multiple ways, such as terrified of disagreeing
with Richard, or in knowing acceptance, which reflects Richard’s charm and influence.
word of mouth
Spoken in formal or informal discourse, in this instance to keep the plan secret in
case letters are intercepted.
lord chamberlain … Hastings
Both references to the same man: William, Lord Hastings held the position of lord
chamberlain until his execution in June 1483. Churchill notes this line as evidence
that the playwright was familiar with Hall’s Chronicle, carelessly transcribing
Henry duke of Buckingham, and William lord Hastings, and lord Chamberlain(348) as though they are three separate people (405).
dares he trust
Richard acknowledges that Hastings holds a strong affection for Edward IV and the
princes, and thus is unlikely to follow Richard’s plan.
as his … life
As much as he trusts himself.
funeral
Decorum dictates Richard be in mourning for his brother’s death; hastening to Buckingham
might provoke suspicion.
screen … fire
A household fixture which shields the grate from splattering fire into the room, and
reduces the intensity of heat (OED screen, n.I.1.a).
Early modern household floors were covered with dry rushes, easily ignited. Richard’s
subterfuges both shield and protect him from heat. In this metaphor, the
heatrefers to the risk of exposure or discovery that might disrupt Richard’s plan.
strengthen myself
Improve my claim to the throne.
controversy
Argument, contention (OED controversy, n.1.a).
Richard’s claim that Edward’s previously contracted marriage made his marriage invalid,
and disinherited his children. Technically, Richard’s claim is legally sound (Cressy 306–307).
kindred
Richard looks to manipulate what is between his nephews and their claim to the throne,
rather than engendering conflict between the kin of Edward IV (Richard himself) and
Elizabeth’s family.
in hucksters’ handling
Likely to be roughly used or lost; beyond the likelihood of recovery (OED huckster, n.3). A huckster is a mercenary petty profiteer.
they not … friends
His retinue are not firm allies.
water … drown it
The multitude of available Woodvilles is a strength Richard uses as a weapon, where
mistrust and infighting will upset the balance.
redouble
Increase, intensify (OED redouble, v.I.2).
The modern grammar would say redoubles, or perhaps a word is missing: may redouble would correct the grammar. This is one of several examples of faulty grammar throughout
the play: grammatical issues crop up in early modern English as used idiosyncratically
by speakers in this work, specifically in subject-verb agreement. We have not corrected
grammar lapses unless they make meaning too hard to comprehend for modern readers.
Fortune
Richard’s reference to Fortune echoes Shore’s wife’s reference (see Sc2 Sp1). Richard welcomes the turn of the wheel, having spent his time at the bottom before
he moved to the top. Even if he falls—and Richard acknowledges this is likely—the
infamy of the rise assures immortality.
world report
In the account of citizens and the memory of chroniclers.
vassals
Servants, lowest class citizens subordinate to everyone else and no opinion worth
having (OED vassal, n.2.b).
it is enough
Richard doesn’t retain this humble desire throughout—as soon as he achieves his aim
he works to ensure he maintains his position. The developing plot and modest goals
distances him from Shakespeare’s Richard.
Sirrah
Diminutive for a young male servant. This can be used to speak to a man, expressing
contempt (OED sirrah, n.1.a), but as the Page is a boy of apprentice age (12–24 years), this is a proper form
of address.
Joy, my lord
Similar to Shakespeare’s scene where Buckingham gauges the appetite for Richard’s
kingship (see R3 3.7.1), the Page seeks reactions to Richard as protector.
young king
Edward V.
A parlous … on
A dangerous (or perilous) issue (as in bone of contention) to chew on (or grind between
the teeth) before coming to a conclusion.
a rush … other
A bundle of dried plant stems tied together for various household purposes, like thatch,
cleaning horses and dogs, chair seats, even cheap candles, if very tightly knit. But
a single rush is worthless.
The closely interwoven Woodvilles are like a closely-knotted bundle of rushes, whose
unity may be weakened by one loose knot. Richard looks to undo the knot of Woodville
confederates. His apparently artless description of what he would do with them (feed
them to the dogs and or set them on fire) is not proverbial so much as violent means
to get rid of them.
Duke … Wales
Buckingham’s army rallies in support of Richard, but reports interpret their action
as a power grab. Richard is happy to let it seem Buckingham aims at the crown, which
diverts attention from his own ambitions. Churchill (406–407) notes Buckingham’s location in the Marches of Wales, a territorial name of the borderland
between Wales and England, is specifically mentioned in Hall’s chronicle (347).
shadow
Remnant, one without substance (OED shadow, n.II.6.g).
Repeated from Richard’s reference to impediments between him and the throne, Buckingham’s
lack of military strength and lack of feasible claim recontextualize this fear (see
Sc3 Sp3).
In trust … treason
Often those worthy of the greatest trust are most likely to be betrayers (Tilley T549).
slippeth
Moves quickly away.
ill … tools
Do not trifle with dangerous people and activities (proverbial, Tilley J45).
For Richard, this includes princely matters. See also Greene:
Take heede I say, it is ill iesting with edged tooles, and bad sporting with Kings(Greene F1r). Similar to
If you play with fire, you’ll get burned.
I’ll trust … him
A profound statement of distrust: “Once out of sight, any duke might plot any scheme
against me.”
your judgments
The Page speaks to the audience, tasking them to decide for themselves about Richard’s
future. As Walsh notes, this is just one instance of direct address the Page employs:
later (see Sc10 Sp1) he is a traditional chorus figure, delivering details about off-stage events (84).
There is a notable difference between the way that Richard constantly woos the audience,
to draw them into his fantasies, and the Page’s stern caution that the audience is
asked to interpret.
spider … fly
The spider is a predator to the fly, and in this relationship, each man sees himself
as the spider. Ultimately, as he will discover, Buckingham is the fly preyed upon
by Richard’s spider.
lord marquess
Dorset.
earls … Northumberland
Westmorland did not fight at Bosworth but pledged loyalty to Henry VII after Richard’s
death. Northumberland’s inaction at Bosworth is often claimed to be a reason for Richard’s
defeat, susceptible to Richmond’s influence (Ellis).
gear will cotton
Matter will succeed, or go on (OED Cotton, v.II.4). Compare Troublesome Reign of King John (see TRKJ).
what do I
What am I doing.
should … points
Is better suited to helping my master undress (or untie his points, the ribbon or
cord that attached hose to a doublet, or fastened a shoe (OED point n.II.ii.23.a). The Page questions his aptitude for spying and scheming, when he feels like he
should be doing standard servant’s tasks.
beside
As a result, in the end.
meddle … end
The Page understands too much meddling can result in misfortune; he vows to remain
separate to save himself.
napping
Unawares.
Greg confirms this reading, which has its first vowel obscured and potentially can be
read as nipping (sharp, stinging, curt OED nipping, adj.1), thus altering the meaning significantly.
any words
A potential alternate reading on this phrase is
my words,which helps clarify the sense of the line. This suggestion is offered with the acknowledgement that a typesetter could potentially mistake a scribe’s “m” for “an,” hence altering the line.
my tongue … mouth
I may say something out of turn to cause trouble.
Haute
Q and all subsequent texts list this character as
Hapce,but this clearly refers to Elizabeth Woodville’s uncle, Sir Richard Haute. He is silent in this scene.
Edward V
As Greg notes (1929, ix), Q calls the young king
Kingor
Kngin speech headings, to reflect his newly-acquired (if not ceremonially confirmed) title. Edward IV is also called
Kingin Q speech headings in his single scene, which in this edition is corrected to
Edward IVfor clarity’s sake (see Sc1 Sp3). This edition defers to
Edward V,which leaves little doubt about the identity. Edward IV refers to his son as
young kingon four occasions, but for the sake of clarity we defer to his title (see Sc1 Sp25). Another option is to call him
Prince,but since we do not meet the character until after he has inherited the crown (although never to see his coronation), Edward V is more apt.
Right-loving
Honest, worthy.
mother hath written
More reports Richard managed to persuade Elizabeth to write a letter to her son which
dismissed his retinue (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London).
train
Retinue, company (Baret, Company: societie, fellowship).
Wilson notes connections between this speech and Shakespeare (see R3 2.2.120), including repeated words
train,
malice,
green,and
break(301), an element Greg suggests as evidence of Shakespeare’s inspiration by this play (1955, 80–81).
Northampton … receive us
Northampton is a halfway point between Ludlow Castle and London, and as it was not
heavily populated (no more than several thousand), a large retinue could have drained
resources.
The Woodville family manor was in Grafton Regis, 8 miles south of Northampton, which
explains familiarity between Rivers and the Host (see R3 1.3.119). The decision to dismiss the train grew from Richard’s reassurance that meeting
at Stony Stratford (5 miles from Grafton Regis) will be beneficial; evidence suggests
Rivers and Richard were previously friendly, so Rivers had little reason to fear.
The necessity (
feigned,according to Hall) of splitting the train between the towns of Northampton and Stony Stratford indicates a large retinue, threatening to Gloucester. Wilson (302) notes this detail, which is absent from Shakespeare but builds on a similarly-phrased passage from More (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London), is directly from Hall:
the Woodvilles brought the young king toward London with a sober company in great haste (but not in good speed) till he came to Northampton, and from thence he removed to Stony Stratford. On which day. the two dukes and their bend came to Northampton, feigning that Stony Stratford could not lodge them all. (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York)
again
Furthermore.
come … blood
Richard’s appointment was unpopular with the Woodvilles, who correctly feared loss
of influence. The young king appears aware of this tension, and is anxious not to
antagonize his uncle Gloucester.
my words … one
My words agree with my mother’s letters.
myself give consent
Agree to this course of action.
league … green
Pact of alliance is fresh and new.
Rivers’ phrasing is generous and suggests equal truce, when Lancastrian leaders were
executed in the aftermath of the Battle of Tewkesbury and other loyalists were pardoned.
This could well have ended the Wars of the Roses, but the death of Edward IV meant
those pardoned Lancastrians saw a new opportunity to stake their claims.
little cause
The smallest, merest incident.
variance
Strife, contention, brawling (Thomas, Concertātĭo). Used later in relation to Richard and Buckingham (see Sc11 Sp24).
Marches of Wales
The border counties in the west of England, close to Wales, where Buckingham had allies.
He would later attempt to rouse these allies for his failed rebellion (Davies).
for what … not
The alliance between Richard and Buckingham is unnerving to the Woodvilles, as these
men held open enmity prior to Edward IV’s death.
do as … good
Do what you think is best.
Why, my … obey
These lines are probably spoken in a private conference, out of the young king’s earshot.
Talk of treason (see Sc4 Sp4) and possession of the young king’s body is unlikely to inspire the boy with confidence
in them (see Sc4 Sp5).
king’s … traitor
Vaughan and Rivers quibble on Richard’s mobilization: Vaughan believes Richard armed
to protect the king, while Rivers considers it treason.
care
Worry, doubt, fear (OED care, n.2). Richard later uses this word in fear of repercussions (see Sc18 Sp1).
they the authority
Gloucester has final say over the decisions the young king makes. Although the Woodvilles
supervise the physical presence of the king, their power is minimal, and the young
king, without his protector, is merely a figurehead.
misdoubt
Suspect, mistrust (OED misdoubt, n.1).
If Rivers identifies Gloucester a foe, he also suspects his ally, Buckingham, is similarly
minded.
hear
Find out.
This word is re-used in the next scene (see Sc5 Sp10) as the Page forces the Host to spy on (OED hear, v.10.a) the Woodvilles, using their tactic against them.
pretense
Intentions, reasons (OED pretence, n.2). Note how this word is used in a different sense by Richard at Sc14 Sp40.
be good
Be honorable, loyal, supportive.
make return … them
Catch up with us along with them.
come … speed
Hurry to us with information.
my sister
Historical inaccuracy: while Sir Richard Grey is often (including by Shakespeare)
characterized as one of the young king’s uncles, he was Elizabeth Woodville’s son,
so the young king’s half-brother.
For my … obey
Grey’s loyalty is the group’s downfall. Unable to identify the weakness in his plan,
Grey’s prime justification is the word of the Mother Queen and young king.
If it … grace
Spoken deferentially to the young king.
Exit Rivers
By shifting this stage direction, the young king may personally say farewell to his
uncle.
my father’s years
Edward IV lived to only 41 years of age. The young king’s youth is emphasized by his
idealization of this age as a long, full life.
God … may
If God be willing.
root … sown
Uncover this mistrust and enmity rife.
king-like resolution
Wise and proper judgment.
A passing hyperbolic connection between Edward V and the wisdom of King Solomon. Later,
Henry VII is compared to Solomon (see Epilogue Sp1).
whose … among us
Who will, God willing, reign prosperously for many years.
forward
The young king wittily re-associates Vaughan’s word with their onward progress to
London.
Host
Q renders this character as
Osteboth in speech headings and text. This might imply a lower-class accent in the treatment of his name, although Rivers also uses this same word. This is most logically an elision of
Host.
possible … be—
Greg notes this as an irregular reading (1929, ix) as Q provides no end stop to this line. This phrase is acceptable when punctuated,
but without the period Greg questions whether there is a word missing or an interruption
is implied. In this case, an em-dash is here adopted to indicate interruption, based
on the host’s anxious energy.
an
If.
good old earl
Rivers was only 43 years old, although at that time, when lifespans were considerably
shorter, he would have been considered more of an elder statesman at that age. Rivers
has stayed frequently at this inn, well known by the Host who is described as an
old Hostat his entrance, which suggests that the Host is the elder of the two, although this casting choice changes the dynamic between the two. A younger Host means he betrays a man he has known his entire life; an elder Host may have seen Rivers grow up. For the consideration of Rivers as
good old earlat 43 years old, Churchill notes examples from contemporary plays, including Edward III, 3 Henry 6, and Selimus, where the designation of advanced age to a younger man was calculated to increase pathos (426–427).
an I do
If I do.
masters
The audience.
Walsh notes:
the host confronts the playgoers by imputing to them a false perception of the world. In essence, he says, ‘you think it’s like this, but really, it’s like that,ʼ a challenge to playgoers to consider his ethical dilemma in relation to King Richard’s rise to power. (84)
troublesome vocation
Distressing task of betrayal.
crept into
Unexpectedly stumbled or fell into.
Mother Queen
Modern parlance would describe the mother of the current monarch as
Queen Mother(an informal title most recently held by Elizabeth Bowes Lyon 1900–2002), but this play describes Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Edward IV, as
Mother Queen,to emphasize her maternal importance to this narrative.
Elizabeth took sanctuary with seven of her children (including Princess Elizabeth
and Richard, duke of York), at Westminster Abbey after Edward V was seized by Gloucester
and Buckingham. This silent scene dramatizes their flight, potentially greeted by
the archbishop of York.
sanctuary
A church or other sacred place in which, by the law of the mediæval church, a fugitive
from justice, or a debtor, was entitled to immunity from arrest (OED sanctuary, n.II.5.a). To indicate this space, a symbol might be incorporated, such as a large cross,
or the assistance of an archbishop guiding them into safety (McMillin and MacLean 131).
Similar to those in plays like The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth, The Troublesome Reign of King John, and Three Lords and Three Ladies, the scene follows an Ancient Roman pantomime tradition of organizing
important effects around visual emblemsto convey information without words (McMillin and MacLean 133).
Earl … chamber
Where available, Rivers might speak from the upper stage, and call out from an opening
down as Richard and Gloucester enter below. This efficiently conveys his confinement
while his enemies are at liberty below. On tour, this would require adjustment where
there is no available window or balcony. This might include a prison behind a central
panel, or a small window in a stage door, or the upper stage, or a separate mansion
that incidentally could also be used for the bed. This stage direction reflects a
moment in Baldwin’s poem in The Mirror for Magistrates which notes that Rivers
opened the window to look outwhere he saw
the streets each were besetaround his inn (see How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned; How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned).
Ho, mine … key?
While there is a case to be made for lines in Rivers’ first speech to be presented
as verse—which might indicate a heightened tone as he realizes he has been imprisoned—the
prose structure also reflects his disordered confusion and reflects his sudden loss
of status. This moment of realization also appears in Baldwin’s poem in The Mirror for Magistrates:
‘How so,ʼ quoth I, ‘the dukes are gone their ways?ʼ / ‘Th’have barred the gates, and borne away the keysʼ(see How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned).
chamberlain
Attendant at a nobleman’s bedchamber (OED chamberlain, n.1.a).
No character has this name in the dramatis personae; it refers to either an unseen
servant of the Host’s house or an unspecified attendant to Rivers.
Rivers seems … off-stage
Rivers sees Richard and Buckingham off-stage before the audience does. Rivers would
likely look out of an opening in the upper stage, as Richard and Gloucester enter
on the stage below.
Good morrow
Rivers calls off-stage to attract Richard and Buckingham, thus lowering his status
by appealing for aid. His immediate use of Richard’s new title demonstrates his humility
and reflects the corresponding moment from More:
Rivers determined, upon the surety of his own conscience, to go boldly to them and inquire what this matter might mean(see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London).
our good cheer
Our excellent food and drink, as well as pleasant company.
Richard, Buckingham, and Rivers dined together the previous night, as Baldwin notes
in The Mirror for Magistrates:
They supped with me, propounding friendly talk / Of our affairs, still giving me the praise: / And ever among the cups to me ward walk: / ‘I drink to you, good coz,ʼ each traitor says: / Our banquet done, when they should go their ways, / They took their leave, oft wishing me good night, / As heartily as any creature might. (see How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned)
agèd head
Rivers was a little more than a decade older than Richard. This insult carries the
secondary meaning of a man attached to the former generation, thus behind the times.
Like Judas
Richard associates Rivers’ place at their table with Judas Iscariot at the last supper:
Then Judas which betrayed him, answered, and said, Is it I, master? He said unto him, Thou hast said it(GNV, Matthew 26:25).
Like Judas … laugh
As Richard becomes more poetic in his condemnation of Rivers and all traitors, he
switches for these eight lines into rhyming couplets.
thou admitted wast
You were invited.
heavens … ills
God stopped you from harming us.
in this plight
In this peril: locked inside his chamber.
Griev’st thou
Are you dismayed, upset.
he was
He who was the man nominated.
to make … away?
To murder us?
must … realm
Richard accuses Rivers of wanting to influence the young king and the nation, a role
which would necessitate Richard’s removal.
Nay, overboard … helm
Through nautical language, Richard positions himself as a captain who guides the ship
of the realm, removes disloyal shipmates, and revels in his ability to steer policy.
weed you … roots
Remove you individually like nuisance plants, destroy you like worthless husks of
threshed grain (OED chaff, n.1.a), I’ll tear (OED rend, v.1.a) your family out so thoroughly you cannot recover.
This second set of metaphors turns agricultural. Richard identifies traitors as weeds
in England’s garden which must be taken, destroyed like worthless chaff, and swears
to tear up Rivers’s family by the very roots. The use of the word stock holds multiple
meanings in this context: Richard allies them with a useless tree stump (OED stock, n.I.1a) to be torn up, but also threatens Rivers’s bloodline, as in farming, stock evokes
the seeds (and animals) to breed the next year’s crop and plan for the future. This
also links to the meaning of family (see Prologue Sp13), line of descent (OED stock, n.I.3a), and to tree imagery used by Shore’s wife (see Sc2 Sp19).
that yet … laugh
Which still mocks at me while the family remains alive.
Alas good … been
These lines are set as verse in Q, but do not scan. Up until this point, Rivers speaks
in prose; by continuing in prose, Rivers humbles himself before choosing to match
Richard’s heightened verse speech in reaction to Richard’s dismissal.
my prince
Edward V, the young king.
exclaim … sort
Cry out so loudly in this manner.
false report
Rumor, innuendo.
proudest … crew
Bravest member of your retinue.
Rivers attempts to ingratiate himself by echoing Richard’s maritime imagery, to limited
effect.
numb
Lacking feeling or sensation (OED numb, adj.1.b) but exaggeratedly due to the feebleness of his age.
his tongue … young
He brags and negotiates as if he were a younger man.
Upbraid you … run
As Rivers defends himself, he heightens his speech into rhyming couplets to echo the
strategy Richard used to accuse him. Aside from an abcb sequence, this section is
an extended run of couplets (see Sc7 Sp6).
to your grace
Against Richard.
glass
A magic mirror, a crystal, used in magic art (OED glass, n.II.9.a). Staring into such a magic mirror was said to allow users to see the past or the
future.
France … Irish … Scotland
Rivers was a well-decorated soldier: serving in Brittany in 1472, with Edward’s invasion
of France in 1475, and was one of the principal commanders in Gloucester’s successful
1482 campaign in Scotland (Hicks). Rivers’s proximity to Richard in the Scottish campaign perhaps offers eyewitness
evidence to support this isolated claim that Richard cowardly avoided scars in battle.
There is no evidence to suggest that Rivers or Gloucester served in Ireland, but during
his lifetime the primary English military intervention in Ireland comprised the defense
of The Pale, the English-controlled area that surrounded Dublin.
When thou … rust
This is Rivers’s first loss of control. He insults Richard for what he believes is
cowardice in war, as evidenced by his lack of injuries and rusty armor. There is no
evidence Richard avoided war, and his reported valor at Bosworth directly contradicts
this statement (Horrox). The image of Richard’s rusted armor is echoed in Shakespeare (see R3 3.5.1.s.d.).
far … kin
Irrelevant to old biases or familial relationships.
Rivers notes they swore fidelity to Edward IV without concern to past enmity, but
now Richard appears to cast judgment based on old rancor.
the oath
Rivers was not present at Edward’s death, and Richard swore no oath there. This oath
is a secondhand report, not a witnessed event. The reference is to Edward’s deathbed
suggests the dying king’s plea that Dorset and Hastings
be unto the young king as you have been to me(see Sc1 Sp25).
our prince’s
King Edward IV’s.
now
Boswell added the word
notto this line because he believed that neither the meaning nor the verse scanned properly without it. However, Rivers certainly takes the opportunity to speak his mind, and a slight revision in
But time permits now nevertheless to tell thee all my mindscans as a fourteen-syllable line.
tell … mind
Speak plainly to you.
for fear
Because others are afraid of your violence and intimidation.
Let commons … hand
Let the people or citizens decide what they want. Rivers warns treason against the
young king will not stand.
whom
Commons, common people, citizens.
in words … you
In language as eloquent as yours.
My lords … quail
This line sequence has been adjusted to maintain the rhyme structure in context: the
internal abcb rhyme emerges with this rearrangement and helps with the clarity of
the speech.
faith … prince
A reminder that Richard accuses Rivers of treason against the young king, not simply
of enmity to Richard and Buckingham. In this sense, Rivers is entitled to indignation.
none … can do
If no one can show proof.
protector
This phrase is certainly spoken cynically, given how Rivers judges Richard. Rivers
now openly questions the efficacy of Richard’s protection.
as judges … are
You will condemn me here and now, with an emphasis on the illegality of their proceedings.
law. In justice
Tried fairly by the laws of the land.
cut him off
Stop his mouth, prevent him from speaking.
I hardly … given
I can barely stand to listen to these accusations you have made.
with my … touch
Now that my integrity has been called into question.
Officers … Rivers
Q gives no stage direction to indicate officers enter to arrest Rivers, but given
that he begins the scene locked behind a door, and Richard then makes specific reference
to where he should be taken after he exits, officers must be in his train. Potentially,
they could accompany Richard and Buckingham at the beginning of this scene, and stand
silently as a sign of intimidation. The officers in the train offer security, particularly
since the
jostlingepisode with Grey in the following scene.
Pomfret Castle
A contemporary elision of Pontefract Castle, Wakefield, where Rivers and Grey were
held and executed.
secretly
Out of sight.
as you … deal
Await my command on how you should proceed.
garrison
Troop of soldiers (OED garrison, n.4.a): the group Buckingham mustered from the Marches of Wales.
band
The numbers in a
bandof soldiers is unclear, but as the term is used in scripture:
Then the soldiers of the governor took Jesus into the common hall, and gathered about him the whole band(GNV, Matthew 27:27), this would equate to a cohort of 400–600 soldiers. Richard takes no chances Rivers may be freed.
common jail
Rivers is not sent to the relative comfort of the Tower of London, but the notorious
underground dungeons at Pontefract.
I know … mind
I know what you plan to do.
God bless … protect
Prayer for his half-brothers: Rivers had only one illegitimate child of his own; the
children he prays to protect and bless are the princes in the Tower. Characterizing
these as figures he leaves behind indicates the protector’s role he has assumed in
lieu of Richard.
marks
Targets an archer aims at (OED mark, n.VI.23.a).
Dorset uses similar imagery with Hastings (see Sc1 Sp10).
rid … right
Deprive them of their inheritance.
Farewell, sweet England
Rivers is only transported some 150 miles further north, but knowing Pontefract’s
bloody reputation, he embraces his likely death.
leads the way
Rivers physically takes charge and exits with some dignity. His acceptance of death
presages he will be first in a procession of deaths at Richard’s hand. This short
line indicates Rivers’s strength and stoicism, and suggests an actor’s pause at its
end.
fear them
Fear for them.
be sure
Surely. Rivers also warns that Richard
take notebecause the injustice meted out to him will eventually find and punish his captors.
hoist … serves
Make the most of this momentum (Tilley S23). See also
make hay while the sun shines.A return to nautical imagery, as Richard looks to take advantage of Rivers’s capture before his confederates discover the trick.
laid close
Watched and guarded by soldiers; originally a nautical term: maneuvered one’s ship
alongside (another) for the purpose of boarding or fighting (OED lay, v.I.5.b and v.II.11.b). In terms of a highway, the implication is preparation for ambush.
shoot him through
Kill him.
Presumably Richard believes any who resist the lord protector’s authority is an enemy
worthy of execution.
Stony Stratford
A small town in Buckinghamshire where Edward V rested the night before arriving in
London for his coronation.
such grace
Such a prayer or blessing before dinner.
Metaphorically, Richard plans to ingratiate himself with the young king and his retinue,
rather than immediately make further arrests.
so great … grace
As important a responsibility as the young king represents.
cannot hear
Have not heard.
fear
Feel apprehensive.
The optimistic young king has much to feel apprehensive about: not only does he mourn
his father’s death and feels nervous about his coronation and new responsibility,
but he has clearly noticed his uncles on both sides of his family squabbling and maneuvering.
sweet … grape
Young wine from a superior grape.
Grey feels fortified by the young king’s words, which he claims would revive a man
half-dead.
of such … prince
From a prince of your quality.
careless … soever
Unconcerned about bad luck or accidents, no matter their peril.
likelihoods
Probabilities, reports.
Richard commanded the roads be guarded closely to prevent messengers, but as Haute
knows of Buckingham they were clearly spotted.
not … far
Will soon be here.
prince’s … own
Haute is aware of the sensitivity of this visit and urges Grey to offer Richard kindness
to ensure their own safety and a smooth coronation.
hardly
With great difficulty (OED hardly, adv.5.b); but also, cued by quick repetition (see Sc8 Sp6) to contrasting meaning of severely, unfairly (OED hardly, adv.3).
merry countenance
Happy demeanor, pleasant show.
courtesy
The young king repeats the term as the way Richard should be treated, reversed to
consider Richard’s appearance as a courtesy to his nephew’s new status (see Sc8 Sp5).
looked … yet
Did not expect you so soon.
humble duty
Richard offers deference to the young king, necessary before he can separate his rival
from Grey and the remainder of his retinue.
keep your rooms
Go to your chambers.
Quoted from More’s description of this moment:
go afore, gentlemen and yeomen, keep your rooms(see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). There is no indication that the train actually exits, because of Grey’s and Buckingham’s scuffle and the swift arrests of the Woodvilles.
Buckingham … Grey
The deliberateness of Buckingham’s accusation makes it more reasonable to believe
he is the aggressor here, and justifies the officer remaining on stage after they
have been ordered to their rooms. Buckingham’s action has historical precedent (as
noted by Churchill, 405), recorded by Hall that
there within the kynges presence they picked a quarel to the lord Richard Grey(349). The tenor of the scene changes significantly from this point, heightening the danger for the Woodvilles. Alternately, an actors’ choice could be to set Grey as the aggressor, which would indicate his disdain for Richard’s faction, but this sets Buckingham as the victim in the exchange and justifies his reaction. In any case, the jostle draws the lines of enmity between the factions, and by claiming self-defense in front of the young King, Buckingham has set the next phase of Richard’s plan in motion.
more than needs
Uncalled for.
inward envy
Hidden enmity, unspoken hatred.
Richard uses a term which Rivers has just professed to himself, which confirms Richard’s
accusation (see Sc7 Sp1).
will burst out
Richard calls on Grey’s undisguised animosity as an excuse to question his integrity
and to position himself and Buckingham as more reliable advisors to the king.
the king’s blood
Blood relative of the king.
Grey is also of the king’s blood, as his half-brother, but Richard emphasizes his
nearer blood connection.
venomous sore
Festering wound.
Repetition emphasizes his feelings, making it clear to the audience and the characters
present that battle lines are being drawn, and that niceties have been abandoned (see
Sc8 Sp18).
remove … flesh
Cutting away gangrene.
Richard likens the Woodvilles to a gangrenous limb best removed before the rest of
the body is poisoned.
dislike thy abuse
Object to your behavior.
combat
Duel for satisfaction of my honor.
an it … grace
If it please the king.
conveyed … Scots
Redirected funds from the treasury to Scottish factions allied to England.
More reports Grey was accused, along with Dorset and Rivers, of having:
entered into the Tower of London, and thence taken out the king’s treasure, and sent men to the sea. All which things, these dukes wist well, were done for good purposes and necessary by the whole council at London. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)In the aftermath of the 1482 capture of Berwick-upon Tweed (in Northumberland, as opposed to North Berwick in Fife, Scotland), the English-funded support of the Duke of Albany arose as a sticking point politically, even though Richard was directly involved. Churchill questions whether Grey could possibly have been involved in this scheme (431).
thinks … hid
Wants to cover it up.
authority
Like a power of attorney, a legal tool to govern and make decisions for (“protect”)
a minor or unfit adult.
The movement of the young king without Richard’s presence undermined the protector,
which he remedied by intercepting the train.
in the … you
Regardless of the things you do against me.
till … place
Until we have time to hold a formal trial. However, Rivers and Grey were convicted
without trial.
general … you all
The distribution of these funds to the Scots was agreed upon by the privy council,
a fact Richard conveniently omits.
hands … discharge
Signatures as proof of the execution of my duty in delivering the funds (OED discharge, v.3.a).
yet as … right
Legal only if your accusations were true.
coronation
Richard is unclear about whose coronation he means: the young king may presume his
own, but to his arrested uncles, they may wonder whether Richard means his own. The
audience may also interpret this to mean Richard’s.
This is yet again a hot issue on the stage and foments the king’s outburst, creating
a dramatic stage picture.
consent
Agreement, authority (OED consent, n.4).
The trump card that Richard holds is that as Protector, he is responsible for a minor
who has no legal status to consent, so in effect, the young king’s consent is dictated
by Richard. Again, this triggering word will elicit different reactions from the assembled
lords: some of sympathy, some admiring his courage, some annoyed by his prattle. As
the idealistic young king speaks, the body language and reactions of the older men
with him will speak volumes to the audience.
loving kindred
These accusations are a clear surprise to the young king, who has only seen his family
members as a positive influence.
give aim at
Stand idly by (OED aim, n.P.2).
Field notes that
to give aim was to stand within a convenient distance from the butts, to inform the archers how near their arrows fell to the mark(Field 27).
Ah, Edward … rule
In Edward’s first crisis of policy, he wishes either for early death or more time
to grow up and learn to make such decisions, a response which emphasizes his youth.
Edward
The young king.
enjoy my kingdom
Take advantage of being king.
for all … own
I cannot speak for the other Woodvilles, but in regard to Lord Grey, why would he
need to steal money, when he has a great deal of his own wealth?
promotion … equals
Preferment instead of others equally deserving; or advancement to greater responsibility
over his peers, or over other peers. However, Richard disputes Grey as a real peer or lord of ancient heritage.
his betters
Those more highly ranked than he, from an older peerage.
Even though Grey is son to the Mother Queen, she herself is not of royal blood. Richard
again undermines Grey’s status as a peer, seeing him as a social-climber or power-seeker.
secrecy
Hidden information, conspiracy.
babes … child
Two open references to the young king’s inexperience and youth; Richard therefore
sees him as unqualified to speak on policy.
use you as
Treat you like.
consult … matters
Have discussions and make decisions about important topics.
true subject
Loyal adherent.
I having … father
Richard trumps the young king’s protest by relying on the trust Edward IV placed in
him.
as … good
To the extent I think appropriate.
Ay me, … king
The young king refers to himself.
answer … disgrace
Grey is confident this injustice will be reversed, and Richard will be punished.
an’t
If it.
by the way
On the journey.
about you
To attend on you.
Richard
Richard’s final line co-opts Buckingham’s proclamation of Edward V to claim his own
kingship. His aside connects with the audience and shares his satisfaction that all
major obstacles have fallen away. Here Richard plays the righteous uncle in earshot
of the other characters on stage, but gleefully shares his delight with the audience.
May … grace
A deferential phrase spoken on seven occasions throughout this play, always in the
tone of placation or inquisition. Of these seven, three instances occur in this scene,
all spoken (see Sc9 Sp7) to the Mother Queen within 20 lines (see Sc9 Sp13), which indicates the Mother Queen’s agitation. Three of the other uses are spoken
in fear to Richard.
show to
Share with.
expect … dead
Look forward, not backwards (proverbial, Tilley D126).
Elizabeth’s philosophy on grief has little effect on the Mother Queen but will be
perceptive as they discover more family members murdered.
esteem and regard
Love and care for.
when I … dreadful
The Mother Queen acknowledges she is beset by nightmares of a desolate future. Shakespeare
uses dream imagery for Richard prior to battle (see R3 5.4.88.s.d.-5.4.156).
league broken
Compact or pledge disregarded.
like importance
Equal prominence.
aged
Elizabeth Woodville was 36 when Edward died, old for her era and especially in comparison
to her children.
While this seems unusually cruel and hyperbolic to see a woman of 36 call herself
aged, in the early modern era, she would have been considered older than she would
today. Very few women, except for the wealthy and pampered (such as Elizabeth I and
Bess of Hardwick) lived beyond childbearing years into menopause or post-menopause.
disgraced
Shamed, eclipsed (OED disgrace, v.2.a).
The Mother Queen puns on being called
your graceto highlight her awareness that her authority as a royal mother has been destroyed.
bishop’s palace
The now-traditional seat of the archbishop of York, Fulham Castle, was not so designated
until the eighteenth century. York’s seat at this time was Cawood Castle in West Yorkshire,
which served as Thomas Rotherham’s home and is recorded to have hosted Richard of
Gloucester, but this castle is nowhere near London. This palace is York Place, the
archbishop’s London residence, which was acquired by Henry VIII in 1530 and incorporated
into the palace at Whitehall.
which … well
Who clearly have his best interests at heart.
archbishop
In Q speech headings, the archbishop of York is called
Cardinal.While this is a valid title for some archbishops, it was not accurate for Thomas Rotherham, then archbishop of York. Greg persuasively suggests the archbishop has been mistaken for the archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal Bourchier (1929, xi); I have emended all SD references to the cardinal.
heavy news
Anticipated sorrow.
Having heard of Rivers and Grey, the Mother Queen’s next logical conclusion is that
her son has been murdered.
Draw home
Draw back your bow to let your arrow fly.
The first of three archery references in quick succession (see Sc9 Sp22).
hit the mark
Come to the point (archery).
A happy … by
The Mother Queen’s third archery reference: an opportune gust of wind to redirect
the flight of an arrow is a stroke of good luck. Links to the mark, or target, which
she assumes is the death of her son, but happy luck has spared him (see Sc9 Sp20).
Content … be so
The archbishop’s tone turns from request to command at this point, which offers the
actor choice about whether this task is difficult for the archbishop, or if he truly
believes Richard’s intentions good.
thee among … enterprise
The Mother Queen’s shock over the archbishop’s inclusion in the plot shows her canniness,
knowing her trust in his office normally would be convincing enough. The betrayal
here is palpable.
bedfellow
Companion, friend (Thomas, Sŏcia).
At this time, bedsharing was common from poor to elite families, even for strangers
in inns, because beds were in short supply, and in an age of uninsulated homes and
scarcity of firewood, two or more to a bed was warmer. The idea of
privacywas not yet fully developed.
laid … charge
Fall on my conscience.
tomorrow
In this timeline, the young king’s coronation is the next day, and re-assures the
Mother Queen that their absence will be short. Historically, after Edward V entered
London on 4 May 1483 the coronation was postponed to 22 June. He was joined by the
duke of York on 16 June; the boys were rarely heard from again after Richard was crowned
on July 6. Italian Friar Dominic Mancini wrote in the summer of 1483 that the boys
were held in
inner apartments of the Towerthat summer, and
day by day began to be seen more rarely behind the bars and windows(113). Edward V was regularly attended by a doctor who ministered to him as one who expected death. By the end of that summer, the boys vanished from sight, assumed murdered.
Upon my honor
Spoken to the Mother Queen to demonstrate his helplessness in this matter; the archbishop’s
message is no request but a command.
ambushed nobles
Concealed, waiting (OED ambushed, adj.2) group of men.
McMillin and MacLean note the silently amassed ambushing nobles, wherein
no stage direction reveals this silent ambush, but it is clearly in place and visible by the time the Archbishop changes his tone(131).
by fair means
With free will, without complaint.
Enter Catesby … armed
The entry of these threatening men justifies the Mother Queen’s expression of fright
for herself and her children. She is probably hiding her children behind her at this
point.
break sanctuary
Granted sanctuary at Westminster Abbey, the Mother Queen is right to be shocked that
Richard disregards the law which allowed her up to 40 unmolested days (or even potentially
an indefinite period) under sanctuary clauses set out in English common law. Richard’s
use of the archbishop to invite the Duke of York from sanctuary demonstrates his awareness
of the optics of violating this trust.
you shall rather
You are going to have to.
Why, madam, … sanctuary?
An insulting question from an archbishop, who is supposed to be the one to offer sanctuary
without question. His hypocrisy, invisible to young York, is obvious to the Mother
Queen and probably to Elizabeth as well.
heavy case
Sad state of affairs.
where cutthroats, … be
Sanctuary was often used (and abused) by common criminals, who claimed sanctuary but
continued committing crimes under its protection. The Mother Queen’s claim against
persecution is the reason sanctuary existed at the time. The provision was gradually
eroded in scope until it was abolished entirely in 1624 by King James I.
If … persuade you
The archbishop tries once more to convince the Mother Queen to let the boy go freely,
because he sees the potential damage Richard may do.
Hold, take … come
These lines are rendered as prose in Q even though they can be read as a rhyming couplet
as the archbishop leaves. Given that the archbishop and duke of York speak in a brief
couplet above, the verse reading here is an appropriate exit line at a moment of heightened
emotion (see Sc9 Sp25).
Catesby
It might appear unusual for Catesby to serve the archbishop, but he likely appears
as insurance to make certain that the task is completed. Greg suggests that Messenger
and Catesby were doubled (1929, xii), and McMillin and MacLean propose that it was not necessarily Catesby that appears
here, but a nameless Messenger character played by the same actor:
a scribe listening to dictation would have had to think for himself which of an actor’s several roles was not being spoken, and it seems virtually certain that he would sometimes get things wrong: Catesby one minute, a Messenger the next. (117)Regardless, Catesby’s presence here is logical enough to retain.
come … company
Here to accompany you to your brother.
Exeunt omnes
As the group exits the stage, the armed guard accompanies the young Duke of York,
along with the messenger, and archbishop.
four watchmen
These men are introduced but stage directions are not given to provide them any explicit
direction. McMillin and MacLean argue the watchmen carry out the actions as the Page
describes them:
his narration is co-ordinated with a mime of the ruffians gathering on-stage, hearing their signal see Sc10 Sp8 and breaking into the Court see Sc10 Sp8 (off-stage) and then re-entering (as ‘other officersʼ see Sc10 SD7) with Hastings in their grasp. The staging suggests the slickness of Richard’s machinery. Committing the act is no more difficult than the Page’s naming of it, and there is no delay. The well-oiled machine works quietly, and there is no place it cannot reach. (132)
Why, … lord
The Page, here a traditional chorus figure, confides in the audience and offers insight
into off-stage activities.
References to Dr. Shaw and the public display at Baynard’s Castle places
emphasis on how Richard achieves power through his manipulation of language and spectacle(Walsh 85) as he invites the audience to see through the façade. The historical detail that the Page recounts is often out of order, much of which occurred after Hastings’ death, not before it.
keeping company
Spending time with such people.
am I … company
A return to the Page’s doubtful speech, with fear his association with morally corrupt
figures will lead to his downfall (see Sc3 Sp30). Given the opportunity to please Richard, however, the Page’s doubts seem to recede
(see Sc10 Sp16).
by that means
By the same devious methods.
instead … head
Another reversal: the Page wishes the guilt for those executed (headless, beheaded) to settle (light) on Gloucester. Tasked with the play’s dirty work, the Page is openly concerned about
his responsibility for any damage done.
made … match
Challenged a superior opponent; bitten off more than he can chew.
blood … threatener
Based on proverbial
blood will have blood(Tilley B458); killing menaces the killer with retribution.
secretly … death
Rivers and Grey were executed on 25 June 1483, days after the princes were secured,
and two weeks prior to Richard’s coronation (Hicks). That they died at Pontefract rather than formally charged and beheaded at the Tower
denotes Richard’s priority for expedience.
but mistrusteth
Even slightly doubts to be loyal.
clapped up
Locked up, held.
Q gives
chopt up,a vivid image to imply mutilation of traitors’ bodies in prison, as Rivers and Grey have suffered. While this
choppedimage may imply gross brutality and slaughter of dissenters, this meaning is patently ahistorical. Some of Richard’s enemies were executed, but to intimate mass slaughter is another thing. Field’s conjecture is far more palatable and implies the detention of opponents rather than their wholesale deaths. This reading depends on an implied compositor’s error, mistaking a la for a ho, an understandable error when reading secretary hand. The sense of the line is far clearer with Field’s reading.
being but mistrusted
Having done no more than seem untrustworthy.
Oxford joined with Clarence as traitors against Edward IV, so his arrest was prudent,
and particularly justified in Oxford’s later escape and defection to Richmond.
Hammes Castle
A now-demolished English fortress that lay to the south of Calais.
Historically, Oxford was a prisoner of Edward IV in Hammes Castle from 1475; he attempted
escape at least once. Fearing his influence, Richard III ordered his return to the
Tower in October 1483, but with his gaoler, Sir James Blount, he escaped to Richmond.
Doctor Shaw
Brother to Lord Mayor Edmund Shaw (Shaa), this refers to Doctor of Theology, Ralph
Shaw, who preached a poorly-received sermon espousing Richard’s claim to the throne
(Tucker).
Paul’s Cross
An open-air pulpit near old St. Paul’s Cathedral.
Preachers delivered sermons at St. Paul’s Cross, and public officials (such as bailiffs)
conducted public shaming (including that of Shore’s wife). The original St. Paul’s
Cross was destroyed in 1643 during the English Civil War and was replaced with a Baroque
sculpture of St. Paul in the early 20th Century.
lord … aldermen
More recounts:
Then on the morrow after, the mayor with all the aldermen and chief commoners of the city, in their best manner appareled, assembling themself together, resorted unto Baynard’s Castle where the protector lay. To which place repaired also, according to their appointment, the duke of Buckingham with divers noble men with him, besides many knights and other gentlemen. And thereupon, the duke sent word unto the lord protector of the being there of a great and honorable company to move a great matter unto his grace. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)
Baynard’s Castle
Richard staged his wooing at Baynard’s Castle purposefully. His brother, Edward IV
was crowned there, and being only a short distance from St. Paul’s, it was near to
where his pro-Richard sermons were preached. The castle was destroyed in the Great
Fire of London.
Shakespeare also makes note of Baynard’s Castle as the setting for Richard’s wooing,
as a landmark familiar to London audiences and important for its strategic location.
whole … upon him
Entire kingdom under his influence.
he refused
Richard’s repeated refusal is dramatized in Shakespeare (see R3 3.7.95–244) and discussed in More:
When the protector had heard the proposition, he looked very strangely thereat and answered that all were it that he partly knew the things by them alleged to be true, yet such entire love he bear unto king Edward and his children, that so much more regarded his honor in other realms about than the crown of any one, of which he was never desirous, that he could not find in his heart in this point to incline to their desire. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)
gone about it
Taken up the cause; ready to argue the merits of the case.
Guildhall
Equivalent to city hall; the hall of the Corporation of the City of London, used for
municipal meetings, state banquets, etc. (OED guild-hall, n.1).
Buckingham approached council at Guildhall with a retinue of knights and supporters
to build Richard’s support. More records Buckingham’s speech, which was received stonily
and prompted Buckingham to comment on
marvelous obstinate silence(see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). Consensus was reached only after several attempts. The timeline of Baynard’s Castle and Guildhall are here reversed.
content thee
Do not worry.
suffer
Tolerate.
my friend’s
Catesby had a long association with Hastings, from his time as a young lawyer in the
Inner Temple. Their professional and personal friendship was primary in the decision
to send Catesby to sound Hastings out (Horrox). Catesby discards his old friendship for Richard’s.
a long sleeper
One who sleeps too much, now considered a symptom of depression; metaphorically. Richard
describes himself as having a dull eye or ignoring certain signs of political unrest.
It is in Richard’s best tactical interests that his enemies believe him to be moving
slowly or unwarily, but it is highly unlikely that on such an important day that he
overslept. This questionable detail about Richard’s sleep is repeated in More:
These lords so sitting together commoning of this matter, the protector came in among them, first about nine of the clock, saluting them courteously, and excusing himself that he had been from them so long, saying merrily that he had been asleep that day. (Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)Shakespeare uses the phrase
a long sleeper:
My noble lords and cousins all, good morrow, / I have been long a sleeper(see R3 2.4.23). Later, however, the Page notes that some believe Richard
lieth never long enough abed,so it is made clear that this is a brazen ruse (see Sc10 Sp8).
give diligent … upon
Are awaiting his pleasure to see them.
thy weapons
To call his allies to arms shows Richard expects a fight. We can assume the call to
weapons includes the Page’s watchmen.
his grace … abed
The Page questions Richard’s claim for oversleeping, as a man too cunning to be so
careless, to highlight the fact that Richard manipulates council (see Sc10 Sp4).
their best caps
Their heads.
Here, Lord Stanley is one of Richard’s likely future victims; Richard later uses him
as a useful pawn over Stanley’s step-son, Richmond.
board
Table.
let slip
Give a hint about what is about to happen.
Let this suffice
He has been beaten enough.
Richard’s need to call off the men who are violently pulling Hastings into the room
suggests a striking, violent stage picture, where Hastings has chosen to fight his
arrest.
sorceress, … Wife
Richard’s accusation was audacious, but none questioned him, as More notes:
Then said the protector: ‘Ye shall all see in what wise that sorceress and that other witch of her counsel, Shore’s wife, with their affinity, have by their sorcery and witchcraft wasted my body.ʼ And therewith, he plucked up his doublet sleeve to his elbow upon his left arm, where he showed a wearish, withered arm and small, as if it was never other. And thereupon every man’s mind sore misgave them, well perceiving that this matter was but a quarrel, for well they wist that the queen was too wise to go about any such folly. And also if she would, yet would she of all folk least make Shore’s wife of council, whom of all women she most hated, as that concubine whom the king her husband had most loved. And also no man was there present but well knew that the his arm was ever such since his birth. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)
famous strumpet
Notorious whore.
If? Villain, … ands?
More reports this inciting incident:
‘What?!ʼ quod the protector. ‘Thou servest me, I ween, with “ifs” and with “ands.” I tell thee they have so done, and that I will make good on thy body, traitor.ʼ And therewith as in a great anger, he clapped his fist upon the board a great rap. At which token given, one cried treason without the chamber. Therewith a door clapped, and in come there rushing men in harness, as many as the chamber might hold. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)Shakespeare similarly uses
ifas a turning point (see R3 3.4.3-4), as does Dolman in The Mirror for Magistrates (see How the Lord Hastings was Betrayed).
short shrift
Expedient confession of sins, last rites (before death).
by the … Paul
Richard’s evocation is reported in More (
‘for by Saint Paul,ʼ quod he, ‘I will not to dinner till I see thy head offʼ,see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) and repeated in Shakespeare (
Off with his head! Now by Saint Paul I swear, / I will not dine until I see the same,see R3 3.4.75–76). Such pious phrasing highlights his audacity.
Sir Thomas
Sir Thomas Brakenbury, lieutenant of the Tower. Sir Thomas is an ally to Richard who
appears later, but is first used here as an arresting officer in addition to the four
watchmen (see Sc12 SD1). There is argument to be made that Richard refers to Sir Thomas Stanley, as he evokes
his name in the following line, but if this were the case, it would be the only point
where Stanley is so mentioned (see Sc10 Sp11). Logically, Brakenbury is the likely commander.
suffer … speak
Don’t let him utter a word.
his broke head
A bloodied scalp, or face, or a bruise from a blow. There has been a struggle off-stage,
and Hastings is brought in with an injury that Richard claims responsibility for.
While Richard claims responsibility for Hastings’ injury, More records another option:
And another let fly at the lord Stanley, which shrunk at the stroke and fell under the table, or else his head had been cleft to the teeth; for as shortly as he shrank, yet ran the blood about his ears. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)More is the first to note Stanley’s injury at the council, a likely embellishment for the benefit of his descendant Lord Strange, Ferdinando Stanley (Manley and MacLean 26). Stanley was not noted at the council prior to More and Vergil (Vergil 182), but does feature in Dolman’s poem in The Mirror for Magistrates, where his injury is also noted:
Laying at lord Stanley, whose brain he had surely cleft, / Had he not down beneath the table crept(see How the Lord Hastings was Betrayed).
excuse
Prevent his arrest.
conspiring by witchcraft
The chief recorded charge against Hastings.
The proclamation following Hastings’s death was so detailed it aroused suspicion,
as More notes:
Now was this proclamation made within two hours after that he was beheaded, and it was so curiously indited and so fair written in parchment in so well a set hand, and therewith of itself so long a process, that every child might well perceive that it was prepared before. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)
listen after
Look to hear about.
success … duke
Buckingham’s attempts to persuade the mayor and other councilors were poorly received,
but necessary to endorse Richard as a preferable king.
nearer the mark
Closer to our goal.
Another repeated archery reference (see Sc1 Sp10; Sc7 Sp9): Richard notes they inch closer to their goal against fewer competitors.
look … friend
After Hastings’s execution, Catesby was elevated to chancellor of the exchequer and
the speaker of the house of commons (Horrox).
thy business
The task I have set for you.
grieves … rest
Richard’s grief over his nephews appears feigned as he feels out the Page. Once disinherited,
the princes in the Tower posed little threat beyond figurehead status for future rebels.
Richard’s decision to kill them is here positioned as a heartbreaking dilemma and
offers an actor’s choice if whether the grief played as sincere or not.
of more … rest
The fate of the young princes in the Tower.
Shakespeare similarly dramatizes this dilemma:
Ha! Am I king? Tis so, but Edward lives(see R3 4.2.14). Without this, his other crimes are for nothing.
man
While the role of a page may appear to be a boy’s job, it was a kind of apprenticeship
that could be held by a
youthroughly between the ages of 12 and 22. The Page’s self-reference suggests he is old enough to consider himself a man and wishes for Richard to see him as one. The Page’s age in turn impacts the dynamic between the two, and his ongoing political savviness indicates that he is likely in the later years of his apprenticeship, engendering Richard’s reliance on his presence.
reacheth the stars
Is far beyond your ability.
Richard doubts the Page able to commit such a crime.
good liking
Esteem, trust.
the state
The court, the kingdom (OED state, n.II.ii.22.b).
Richmond uses this term twice to describe his conquest (see Sc15 Sp5), including his final line (see Sc21 Sp23).
choke … gifts
Overwhelm murderers with rewards.
He demonstrates eagerness to be held in high esteem but with distance to protect himself.
man
Richard picks up on the Page’s desire to be seen as a man beyond his duties. Richard
takes the word man to mean
servantwhile the Page identifies it as a sign of maturity having reached an age of responsibility. A youth cannot be held responsible in the same way as an adult.
I care … thee
Richard’s reluctance to say the words even to his page betrays the magnitude of his
decision, but also speaks to his mistrust of all, inciting open treason and promoting
regicide.
Zounds
By God’s wounds (mild profanity).
Richard’s immediate reaction is potentially in response to the Page’s betrayal of
shock or surprise. Richard is aware that such an utterance is sufficient to seal his
own death for treason, so clearly the Page has reacted in such a way that he does
not feel confident in his admission.
’tis out
I have spoken my secret.
James Tyrrell
Sir James Tyrrell, son of one of the conspirators beheaded for attempting to murder
Edward IV, switched to the Yorkist side and later confessed to the murders of the
princes in the Tower.
The Page’s recommendation of Tyrrell offers connection between this play and Shakespeare.
While the Page does not appear in Shakespeare, a boy or page recommends Tyrrell (see
R3 4.2.34–42). More reports Tyrrell’s confession and implication of one other murderer:
both Denton and he were examined and confessed the murder in manner above written, but whither the bodies were removed, they could nothing tell(see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). Vergil does not implicate a co-conspirator but adds some conscience and compulsion for the killer:
James Tyrrell, who, being forced to do the king’s commandment, rode sorrowfully to London, and, to the worst example that hath been almost ever heard of, murdered those babes of the issue royal(see Anglia Historia).
work
Persuade.
soon at night
This evening.
reputation or calling
Rank, station, occupation.
I dare … bound
I stake my reputation.
upon my credit
On my honor.
so good … lord
Richard promises generosity: an ironic claim (as he hires a man to murder children)
plain to the audience and the canny Page.
goods be confiscate
More records:
Now then, by and by, as if it were for anger and not for covetise, the protector sent into the house of Shore’s wife (for her husband dwelled not with her) and spoiled her of all that ever she had, above the value of two or three thousand marks, and sent her body to prison (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)
bishop … penance
The long-standing bishop of London, Thomas Kempe, was charged by Richard to apply
this sentence, as More reports:
And for this cause (as a goodly continent prince, clean and faultless of himself, sent out of heaven into this vicious world for the amendment of men’s manners), Richard caused the bishop of London to put her to open penance, going before the cross in procession upon a Sunday with a taper in her hand. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)
open penance
Public shaming as expiation. This is dramatized later (see Sc11 Sp1), and would include
going before the cross in procession upon a Sunday with a taper in her hand(see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). See notes below (Sc11 Sp38).
so bare … plague
Leave her with nothing for that is what she has earned.
straight proclamation
Immediate announcement.
none … relieve her
No one may help Shore’s wife.
privy spies
Secret watchers.
beginning … famous
Rise to prominence was so much talked about.
See links to Shore’s wife’s talk of fame (Sc2 Sp1) and Richard’s dismissal as a
famous strumpet(see Sc10 Sp9).
infamous above all
Notoriously shameful beyond any other. His word choice famous/infamous emphasizes
the depth of her fall.
win … forever
If the Page can successfully find a murderer, he will win Richard’s ongoing esteem,
which is what the Page desires most at this point.
Enter Shore’s Wife
It is significant that when Shore’s wife meets three men who appear in her first scene
in the play none recognize her (see Sc1 Sp7). Her physical appearance has changed dramatically from her first scene, when she
was comfortably maintained by Edward IV. She has completed open penance, is dirty,
cast out in her shift, potentially disfigured, and so is almost unrecognizable (see
Sc11 Sp38).
to the king
to Edward IV.
Shore’s wife is concerned about how slanders against her might affect her royal lover’s
legacy.
only … defame
Sole stain of dishonor (OED defame, n.1).
Shore’s wife claims that her family honor, heretofore spotless, but now rendered void,
exhibits her as a shame to the nation.
fair
Beautiful, attractive.
discipline before affection
Self-control to be more valuable than lust.
breach … suffered me
William Shore appears to have been a willing cuckold, likely due for the financial
preferment his wife’s associations brought. More notes William Shore was
an honest citizen, young and goodly and of good substance. But forasmuch as they were coupled ere she were well ripe, she not very fervently loved for whom she never longed(see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). Shore’s impotence led to annulment in 1476, and her affairs with Edward IV and Hastings carried on through Shore’s lifetime. She sees now that everyone knew she was entrapped, including her husband, because neither of them could protest against the king alone. Heywood offers a sympathetic view of the Shores in Edward IV where the play makes clear that both husband and wife are victims.
it bootless … prick
Senseless to fight against overwhelming power, whether in nature or in the social
or political hierarchy (Tilley F433).
Quoting scripture:
And he said, Who art thou, Lord? And the Lord said, I am Jesus whom thou persecutest: it is hard for thee to kick against pricks(GNV, Acts 9.5).
hardly used
Badly mistreated.
which are … custody
Richard has followed through with his promise to strip her of her belongings (see
Sc10 Sp27).
restoring … lost
The first of three references to Shore’s wife’s kindnesses: Lodowick’s lands are fictional,
but the focus is the inability for any of her beneficiaries to return her favor (see
Sc2 Sp17).
try him … anything
Shore’s wife uses this exact phrase on each approach to her former friends, which
establishes a cadence for her piteous appeals (see Sc11 Sp13; Sc11 Sp23).
changest … worst
As one previously attached to Hastings, Lodowick must feel exposed, but still has
room to state his disbelief that good people around him seem to accept and embrace
Richard despite his flaws.
headless peers
Executed nobles.
neither … minded
Similar to complaints against the Woodvilles, this trade in half-truths against the
followers of Richard slanders those in privileged positions, including Catesby, Brakenbury,
and Lovell.
hardly bewails
Has barely had time to grieve.
should be
Have been. This also suggests the sense that they
ought to beimprisoned, either for their safety or to prevent rebellion.
imprisoned … forth again
The princes’ transition from royal guests to prisoners was seamless because of the
Tower’s multipurpose function. To stay in the Tower prior to happy events of state
(such as a coronation or wedding) was common, and so it was simple to explain their
presence. As a fortress, the Tower was essentially impossible for a prisoner to leave.
But God … overthrown
May God protect those on the side of right, and may the rightful heirs not be entirely
wiped out.
right … overthrown
Those who have the true right to the crown (i.e., Richmond) may not fail.
Lodowick’s editorializing on Richard’s actions is open treason, but he appears secure
in solitude. Bezio notes this line as evidence that The True Tragedy suggests the wars of the roses were a divine cleansing to pave the way for the accession
of Henry VII (71).
where … given
Someone whom I have benefited.
how innocently … witness
The speed of Hastings’ execution has shocked everyone, including the heavens.
Lodowick emphasizes Hastings’s goodness.
relieve
Help, assist.
chiefest … all
King Edward IV.
fact
Crime.
spoil for villains
Prey for criminals.
pity thee
Condescend to help you.
lands … gone
The shuffling of land ownership between regimes meant, were it not for Shore’s wife,
Lodowick would almost certainly have lost his land.
so long … little
Work so hard to ask for a small amount of help.
but may … she
So far Lodowick has not recognized Shore’s wife. This lack of recognition, and his
eventual realization, is the key theatrical moment here. Given the ragged state of
Shore’s wife at this point, Lodowick may have avoided eye contact or physical interaction.
The moment of recognition would be a striking shift from Shore’s wife’s first appearance,
made vivid by Lodowick’s rejection and exit.
Aside
Lodowick discusses Shore’s wife with the audience as a cautionary tale but does not
speak to her again. The proclamation means Lodowick offers not a single word after
discovering her identity, despite their past. Lodowick knows the personal risk he
would assume if he spoke to her and clearly protects himself.
in such credit
Such a favorite of.
but
That.
there set … verse
Lodowick resolves to use this matter as fodder for an epic or historical drama and
demonstrates his opportunistic nature and his awareness of the tragedy he’s witnessed.
It is metatheatrical and ultimately prophetic, given Shore’s wife’s appearance in
this play as well as in works by Chute (1593), Drayton (1597), Heywood (1599), and
Rowe (1714). Walsh suggests Lodowick’s plan reflects the content of Churchyard’s poem
on Shore’s wife in The Mirror for Magistrates (87).
wonderful
Awe-inspiring, incredible.
yet stay
Not only does Lodowick give no answer, but leaves abruptly, unwilling to be seen with
her.
Exit Lodowick
Lodowick’s exit is shifted from its Q position to here, to heighten his rejection.
Shore’s wife appeals to him directly and still he chooses to shun her and gives the
actor the opportunity to pause and make the decision to leave before he hurries out.
have … done
Is this my reward for the help I’ve given?
chiefest pomp
Greatest glory.
pleasure … suits
Do good by my friends by presenting requests.
swayed the sword
Shore’s wife claims great influence in her ability to make policy and convince the
king to decide in her favor.
mindful … poor
I still took time to remember the poor people.
know … succor me
Acknowledge our past relationship or help me.
another
A mute citizen. The Citizen’s companion is a prop for the Citizen to speak to in indignation
against Shore’s wife.
No men, … orders
The Citizen gives insight into the chaos created by the death of Edward IV, and the
struggle between the lord protector and the Woodville kindred. He contrasts the fear
in London prior to Richard’s proclamation, a perilous state of society demonstrated
by the lessening of violence in the London streets since Richard became king, and
peace proclaimed with Scotland.
Thames
The waterway was jammed with boats ferrying back and forth, indicating great activity.
peace … years
This timeline is compacted: the treaty of Fotheringhay was signed 11 June 1482, prior
to Edward IV’s death, as part of the English support of the Scottish pretender, Alexander,
duke of Albany. This treaty saw agreement for the exchange of land and a promise for
the marriage of one of Edward’s daughters to a Scottish prince, but this did not last.
The
six yearsis an exaggeration: both Hall and Holinshed list only three (Churchill 409).
had … wise
Should choose policy carefully.
hedges … ears
Be wary about what you speak, because spies are everywhere (Tilley W19).
Compare Shakespeare (see R3 2.4.37).
But here’s thou
What do you do here?
This could be played as a moment of recognition, or to state that she should not be
begging in this place.
neighbor
The Citizen’s companion.
charity
Generosity, kindness.
sprig … bough
A relative, or a person of the same worthless type.
could … acquaintance
Must keep the company of.
for her sake
For the memory of Shore’s wife.
He is happy to give money to a friend of hers, but not directly to her.
somewhat
Something.
Lie still, purse
Stay closed. Give no money.
for twenty … farthing
Exchanged a very large sum for a very small sum. In calculating comparison, it would
take 19,200 farthings to equal 20 pounds.
hard
Severe.
minion
Worthless one (OED minion, n.I.3.b); originally the darling of a powerful person (French, mignon), but later contemptuous,
especially for a homosexual
toy boy—here relying on the metatheatrical fact that Shore’s wife was played by a boy-actor.
shame
William Shore’s shame is often noted, but heavily influenced by Richard’s rhetoric.
Lay … maintain you
Get a job, feed yourself.
choleric
Irascible, hot-tempered, with an overabundance of choler or black bile (OED choleric, adj.1.a).
an
If.
The Citizen is not grateful for his son’s rescue and uses his anger about his son
to justify not giving Shore’s wife anything.
I would … hanged
The Citizen reverses his thanks for sparing his son, which effectively removes Shore’s
wife’s bargaining chip.
open shame
Public disgrace.
fact
Crime.
pleasure me
Make me feel happy.
John … Lincoln
John de la Pole, 1st earl of Lincoln, was Richard III’s nephew and one of his most
prominent supporters. Proclamation of Lincoln as Richard’s heir was never made formally,
but after the April 1484 death of Richard’s only son, Edward, Lincoln was given the
lieutenantship of Ireland to strengthen him as a preferable heir to Clarence’s son
Edward, earl of Warwick. Lincoln maintained status after Richard’s death but died
in 1487, a rebel at the battle of Stoke. The gossip of Lincoln as Richard’s heir is
due to the ambiguous nature of the succession as rumored in the streets.
some says
Some go so far as to say.
that … all
Who backed Richard in everything.
Buckingham’s efforts in supporting Richard to the throne were motivated in part by
promised honors and promotions, some of which were denied. Richard reneged on his
promise to transfer Hastings’s property, the source of the cause of Buckingham’s malcontent.
Shakespeare uses the withheld earldom of Hereford as the flashpoint (see R3 4.3.88), but this claim is historically inaccurate, as Buckingham had oversight over Herefordshire
which was no longer an earldom (Davies).
is rid
Has ridden, traveled by horseback.
Brecknock Castle
Now known as Brecon Castle, Brecknock was controlled by Buckingham, who retired to
this position to scheme against Richard.
pull … usurper
Overthrow the seizer of the throne without right.
agree … will
Reach whatever decision they want.
the next … overseas
I’ll take the next ship to another country.
As Richmond recounts (see Sc15 Sp19), and which the Page witnesses, a significant exodus of disaffected Englishmen left
in the wake of Richard’s coronation (see Sc16 Sp1).
Morton
After Morton’s entrance in this scene, his first speech prefix is
Mort.In his remaining three lines, this changes to
Seru.As these two speech prefixes evidently indicate the same character, these have here been conflated.
A fool, … enemy
Morton notes that doing favors does not guarantee the same treatment in return, but
her foolish behavior has spoiled her chances to rise again.
my store … small
I don’t have very much money.
I cannot … would
I am unable to do what I promised I would, or wish I could.
should … enemy
Spoken for the Page’s benefit but misunderstood by Shore’s wife as a change of heart.
This suggests the actor does not convey his regret.
would
Wish I could.
with all … heart
Morton takes a risk to speak frankly to Shore’s wife, but the Page seems not to notice.
yonder villain
The Page.
but
Although.
Why, hath … thee
This line changes depending on the actor’s emphasis:
hath he undone theereads very differently to
hath he undone thee,both of which imply she is to blame.
The Page comments on Shore’s wife’s hubris and her self-inflicted downfall, seemingly
inevitable regardless of whether Richard intervened.
wantest maintenance
Are lacking money.
thy old trade
Prostitution.
Shore’s wife’s reputation as a prostitute is chiefly apocryphal but was a common conception
after her death.
open penance
Richard notes Shore’s wife will do penance at Paul’s Cross (see Sc10 Sp27), so she is stripped of her finery and forced to progress through the square holding
a taper, as specifically noted in The Mirror for Magistrates (477). As she took her
shame, More notes:
she went in countenance and pace demure so womanly, and albeit she were out all attire save her kirtle only, yet went she so fair and lovely, namely while the wondering of the people cast a comely rud in her cheeks (of which she before had been most miss), that her great shame won her much praise among those that were more amorous of her body than curious of her soul, and many good folk also, that hated her living and glad were to see sin corrected, yet pitied they more her penance than rejoiced therein, when they considered that the protector procured it more of a corrupt intent than any virtuous affection. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)This play does not show the actual penance, only the aftermath: Heywood, however, did stage this scene in 2 Edward IV, with the stage direction
Enter the two Parators, with Mistris Shore in a white sheet barefooted with her hair about her eares, and in her hand a waxe taper(4.3). Fleischer suggests she may have been branded on her forehead, with a “P”
for peccata as in the Purgatorio, or for Penitent,or even
‘A,ʼ anticipating Hawthorne(137), although Henning questions whether branding was traditional (Henning 89).
holy whore
Hypocrite who preaches scripture yet acts counter to her words.
shall … done
Will never be finished punishing you.
faults … mine is
Shore’s wife attacks the Page’s hypocrisy for daring to mock her faults when his are
hidden beneath the surface. Fleischer (137) notes this line as evidence she has been branded with some symbol of her sin, but
it more likely refers to her blushing face, or physical signs of her ordeal, as facial
branding was not common.
cannot … court
The Page accuses Shore’s wife of not knowing her place, as she begs in the streets
near the court.
all whores … served
All prostitutes should be treated the same way.
good
Sarcastic, given the tenor of his previous lines.
live … see
Prophetic, even at her lowest ebb: Shore’s wife long outlived Richard and was still
alive when More wrote his history. She is supposed to have died in 1527, 42 years
after Richard, perhaps illustrating the restorative power of her penance and fall.
And though … hurled
This speech-ending couplet places an identifiable end-stop on the scene, despite the
fact that Shore’s wife has spoken primarily in prose throughout.
with a letter
Brakenbury has received word about Tyrrell’s task.
Master
Tyrrell was knighted by Edward IV after his service at Tewkesbury yet is not called
Sir Jamesin this play or in Shakespeare. His role as royal murder conspirator diminishes his knightly status.
them both
The young king and the duke of York.
I was … servant
This is a historical inaccuracy: Brakenbury was a loyal servant to Richard from at
least 1477, appointed lieutenant of the Tower on Richard’s command in July 1483. At
Tyrrell’s execution in 1502, it was stated Brakenbury refused to kill the boys, but
it had little to do with Edward IV (Horrox).
give
Permit, allow.
you are … matter
You have nothing to fear, you are not implicated.
leave it
Forget about it.
here with tears
The first of several sentimental references to the emotional impact of the boys’ murder,
Brakenbury demonstrates the fear he feels which forces him to surrender the boys to
save his own life, an echo of the dilemma the old Host feels when asked to imprison
Rivers.
But ho
Are you there?
Myles Forrest
Forrest is one of the two murderers of the boys in Shakespeare, as noted in both More
(see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) and Holinshed but he is an accessory in this play. The decision to use Forrest as
an intermediary rather than murderer offers distance between the victims and their
trusted attendant and might speak to how conflicted Brakenbury is over Forrest’s role.
I spake of
In this long chain of command, Richard employs the Page, who engages Tyrrell, who
speaks to Forrest about acquiring two men to do the crime. As such, if Slaughter and
Denton are caught, there is no direct connection from them to the king. Such a hierarchy
appears in Shakespeare’s 2 Henry VI (see 2H6), Peele’s The Battle of Alcazar, and Thomas of Woodstock (Fleischer 240–241).
Will Slaughter
A brutal name which signifies his occupation and his determination to carry it out,
later observed by the young king.
Jack Denton
Denton’s name appears in multiple forms in this scene; here as
Dentenbut later as
Douton,with a speech prefix of
Dout.(see Sc12 Sp21). This is likely a compositor’s error, with a turned letter n and a misreading of e for o.
To make … folly
To talk about this too much would be foolish.
resolute
Certain, clear-headed, determined (upon an action) (OED resolute, adj.6).
This is in contrast to King Edward’s earlier usage (in the sense of constant, firm,
steadfast) to describe ambition (see Sc1 Sp6).
cast away pity
Forget about conscience.
not so … favor
Put the reward out of your mind.
’Tis not … about
Will presents himself and Jack as experienced killers, but this is questionable, given
Jack’s fear (see Sc12 Sp41).
An actor may play either or both of these characters as hardened killers, or braggarts.
no bloodshed
Richard’s command the boys’ blood not be shed is in part practical: less to clean
and no incriminating evidence left. The reluctance to spill royal blood is a modicum
of respect, also afforded Clarence, who was drowned rather than stabbed, and Hall’s
chronicle notes,
For James Tyrrell devised that they should be murdered in their beds, and no blood shed(see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York)(Churchill 378, Churchill 405). Despite this stipulation, each killer’s suggestion involves bloodshed, a clue as to their intelligence.
ready charged
Loaded.
suddenly
Without warning.
bring … both
Bring up both killers to commit the murder after the boys are asleep, which allows
the men to roll boys into the featherbeds and smother them.
two feather-beds
More records use of bed-clothes and pillows:
Then all the other being removed from them, this Myles Forrest and John Denton about midnight (the sely children lying in their beds) came into the chamber, and suddenly lapped them up among the bedclothes—so bewrapped them and entangled them, keeping down by force the featherbed and pillows hard unto their mouths, that within a while, smored and stifled, their breath failing, they gave up to God their innocent souls into the joys of heaven, leaving to the tormentors their bodies dead in the bed (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London)
Exit Tyrrell
Q’s stage direction complicates the later removal of the princes’ bodies from the
stage, but also provides him deniability about his role in the murders.
sorrow … myself
The young king’s youthful wisdom recalls the proverbial
out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou ordained strength(GNV Psalms 8:2).
whom our … left
The young king comes close to criticizing his father’s judgment but concludes Richard’s
slacking of duty is responsible.
digress from duty
Depart from what he had sworn to do.
know … cause
Can think of no good reason.
garden
Tradition says the princes were held in the White Tower at the centre of the Tower,
and so they had a view of the Tower Green below.
Did the king?
That was done by the king?
am I … king
He is not yet crowned, but he was proclaimed successor after Edward IV’s death. As
far as he knows, he is king in all ways except for personal power held in trust by
his uncle, and does not know of Richard’s campaign against his legitimacy. note a
similar revelation in Shakespeare (see R3 3.5.8–10).
would have said
Meant to say.
enjoy … liberty
A line indebted to Hall:
the prince sore abashed began to sigh and said: alas, I would mine uncle would let me have my life although I lose my kingdom(Hall 378).
so
If only.
clean discharged
Removed from his position permanently.
new … laws
Proverbial (Tilley L446), suggesting that people newly in power tend to change the system to suit themselves.
This reflects the Citizen’s
No men, no laws, no princes, no orders: activity and changes are as unnerving as the anticipation the Citizen notes (see Sc11 Sp14).
who are they
Even as Slaughter and Denton stand aside, the king sees and reacts to them, and in
turn, the murderers may hear and react to the king’s dismay.
ghastly looks
Frightening demeanors.
starts
Flinches or recoils; startles; stares in horror (OED start, v.I.8.a), all involuntary movements of distaste or fear.
The young king’s physical reaction to Will Slaughter’s name is unmistakable and encourages
sympathy for his gentle nature.
walk up
Forrest’s invitation suggests he takes the boys upstage, or potentially to the possible
discovery space, hidden by a tapestry.
see
Imagine.
ta’en … hand
Agreed to do it.
are you faint-hearted
Timid, cowardly.
Slaughter’s mockery matches the conversation between Clarence’s murderers in Shakespeare
(see R3 1.4.104–135), where one assailant’s fear is subdued by the other.
A little thing
Such provocation.
feels me?
Reacts to my touch?
Slaughter revels in the thought that if the young king was startled by the mere sound
of his name, the boy will be truly shocked when he feels Will’s wrath, which demonstrates
his true cruelty.
at rest
Asleep.
Moving … boys
There are multiple ways this scene may be staged, depending on the venue. If a discovery
space is available, a bed might be pushed out in view of the audience. Simpler venues
might just have an area where the sleeping boys lie upstage. In either case, the boys
are in view of the spectators, slightly obscured by upstage positioning. The struggle
would certainly have happened in view.
hear
Forrest hears the sounds of the struggle and little drowsy cries as the boys are killed.
calling from upstage
While there is no prescribed stage direction that suggests where the boys are killed,
it is likely the murder occurs upstage, which makes the act more distant from the
audience, but still within their direct view. Forrest’s distance is intentional so
as to not be a witness, but he can still hear what is happening. The on-stage murder
is designed to be partially seen by the audience, and it is up to the actors to decide
how much the boys struggle or resist, although from Denton’s aggressive commentary,
it is not a peaceful death. The title-page reference to
Wherein is shown […] the smothering of the two young princesleaves little doubt the violent act is in view.
cry again
It is in Denton’s and Slaughter’s best interests to stifle further cries, lest they
are discovered. At this point the boys are struggling for their lives, potentially
calling for Forrest’s aid, thrashing, kicking, attempting to run away, or reaching
out for one another. They are no match for the larger men, but they have made enough
of a commotion that their murderers need to cover the boys’ faces to end it all.
heap of stones
More notes Tyrrell
caused those murderers to bury them at the stair-foot, meetly deep in the ground, under a great heap of stones,source for this citation (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). In 1674, demolition of an old section of the White Tower uncovered two small skeletons, thought to be the princes. Charles II interred the bodies in Westminster Abbey under this assumption (Horrox).
chronicles … mention
The location of the burials are indeed lost to time, as More notes:
their bodies cast God wot where, by the cruel ambition of their unnatural uncle and his despiteous tormentors(see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). Later chroniclers like Holinshed and Hall follow More, which renders this line accurate.
kingly thanks
Preferment, privilege.
with … dagger drawn
The last time we met Buckingham, his last line was
God save the kingin deference to Richard (see Sc8 Sp34). A great deal has changed since that entrance: his next three mentions refer to his role in the arrest of the Woodville faction (see Sc9 Sp13), then his efforts to proclaim Richard king (see Sc10 Sp11), and then finally to his rebellion and flight to Wales (see Sc11 Sp24). Historically, the Duke of Buckingham became disaffected with Richard in July 1483 after being denied access to Hastings’ estates. Bishop John Morton, Buckingham’s prisoner at Brecknock, took advantage of this disenchantment in October 1483 by persuading him to support the Beaufort-Woodville conspiracy, designed to place Richmond on the throne. By October 11 Richard was aware of Buckingham’s defection and subsequent raising of a rebel army in the Marches of Wales. Buckingham’s rebellion failed due to the lack of loyalty his mercenary army showed, and inclement weather that scattered his forces. After this failure, he went into hiding, relying on his former servant, Ralph Banastre, who we see in this scene after Banastre’s betrayal (Davies). The transition from
God save the kingto the desperation of threatening his close servant’s life shows the magnitude of his fall.
save my life
Spare me.
unjustly betrayed me
Ralph Banastre initially assisted Buckingham after the latter was declared a rebel
fugitive. Buckingham stayed at Banastre’s home in Wem, Shropshire, but Banastre betrayed
him for financial gain (Davies).
proclamation … grace
As Buckingham attempted to rouse allies, he was declared a traitor, which implicated
any who associated with him.
lucre
Financial gain, money.
spends … master
Dedicates his life to supporting his master’s cause.
Buckingham … Banastre
Buckingham’s attack is fruitless: Ellis suggests Banastre was lauded for his role
(100), although, as discussed below, the Herald’s order that he be arrested reflects the
cost of his treason as reported by Holinshed (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) and Hall (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York).
This is a vivid stage picture, with the desperate Buckingham ready to murder his servant
for his betrayal, only to be prevented by the intervention of the Herald. This turn
in fortunes and violent act would have a stunning effect on the audience, as well
as on Buckingham himself.
’rest
Arrest.
held
Beheld.
put … besides
Buckingham’s role in the princes’ death is omitted. Shakespeare has Buckingham hesitate
to help (see R3 4.2.24–26), but here he is entirely innocent. Historically, Buckingham is implicated: one suggests
the boys were
put to death in the Tower of London be the vise of the duke of Buckingham(Anonymous, Historical, 588), although his involvement is lessened in Vergil and More (Davies).
bishop of Ely
In Buckingham’s custody, Morton came into his captor’s good graces, and convinced
him to support Richmond. After Buckingham set out to raise support, Morton fled to
Brittany and left Buckingham to Richard.
All
Buckingham’s supporters.
The noise that Buckingham’s rescuers would have made would have been considerable.
With six actors shouting, and using their swords, bucklers, and daggers to bang on
their armor to make a racket, there would have been an impressive cacophony as they
attempted to prevent his arrest. We don’t know the identity of these men, but they
are loyal to Buckingham, likely equipped in advance of joining the Welsh against Richard.
give me … speak
Let me say something.
bringing in
Helping to elevate.
Henry, … Richmond
Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, was the final Lancastrian claimant to the English throne,
a great-great-great grandson to Edward III through his mother, Margaret Beaufort.
He inherited the title of the earl of Richmond from his father, who died before his
birth. After the accession of Edward IV in 1462, Henry Tudor was sent to be brought
up in Wales, where he spent much of his youth. After his uncle Henry VI reclaimed
the throne briefly in 1470, Richmond was predicted to be a future king, but the short-lived
Lancastrian readeption meant Richmond was forced to flee to France to avoid capture.
He landed in Brittany and was well received by François II, duke of Brittany, who
remained a steadfast supporter, partly for the preferment he anticipated were Richmond
to claim the throne. After a failed invasion in October 1483, Richmond landed in Wales
in August 1485, where he defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth, outside Leicester.
He was proclaimed King Henry VII on 22 August 1485, was crowned on 30 October 1485,
and married the Princess Elizabeth of York on 14 January 1486. He died on 21 April
1509.
The first mention of Richmond, as Bezio notes,
follows almost immediately upon the heels of the murder of the two princes in the Tower, textually situating him as Edward V’s heir(72).
ere long
Very soon.
Milford Haven
This encompasses the Milford Haven Estuary Waterway in Pembrokeshire, on the southwest
coast of Wales.
lawful king
Richmond.
Buckingham’s treasonous statement declares Richard’s rule unlawful. This
contrasts with Richard’s usurpation, and even Richard acknowledges Richmond’s right(Bezio 72; see Sc14 Sp19).
this
King Richard, but likely directed at Richard’s herald.
yoke
Burden of servitude(OED yoke, n.IV.11).
The same term Richard uses when describing his service to his brother (see Sc3 Sp3).
given to
Won by.
as promise … passed
Betrothal was earlier passed or consented to by Edward IV.
Richmond’s mother petitioned for marriage to Elizabeth during Edward IV’s lifetime.
After Richard III took the throne, his opponents’ appetite grew for the potential
in Richmond’s marriage to Elizabeth.
While then
Until that time.
meaning good
Intention pure.
raise
Elevate, crown.
were smothered
We have no real sense when the boys died but, given that fugitive Buckingham knows
of their fate, this scene occurs some weeks later. The boys’ death may be the reason
for Buckingham’s flight, given his potentially being named an accessory to the crime.
Buckingham was involved with the boys’ removal from their uncles, and did nothing
to prevent their deaths.
vaunt
Praiseworthy, commending himself openly or giving a good account of his behavior (OED vaunt, v.3.a).
Buckingham congratulates himself for being no part of child-murder.
altogether innocent
Buckingham’s second protestation seems genuine in grief for the boys. As a close advisor
to Richard, Buckingham, if he truly had no idea about the plot, shows Richard’s devious
secrecy.
child … thee up
Banastre was a gentleman of good family and may have been trained as a child and teenager
with Buckingham has many noble or gentry children were traded around as part of their
education. In the history of the village of Wem, Banastre is remembered as having
been tenderly brought up by Humphrey Stafford, the great Duke of Buckingham, who loved, favored, and trusted him above all his servants(Garbett 363).
curse of Buckingham
Buckingham curses Banastre as Buckingham’s Ghost curses Richard in Shakespeare (see
R3 5.4.147.s.d.–5.4.156). Banastre was rewarded Buckingham’s Kent estate (Yalding Manor), which he later
re-gifted back to Henry VII, which might suggest prosperity resulted from his actions,
but chroniclers note Banastre’s misfortune after his betrayal. Holinshed records that:
shortly after Banastre had betrayed the duke his master; his son and heir waxed mad, and so died in a boar’s sty; his eldest daughter of excellent beauty, was suddenly stricken with a foul leprosy; his second son marvelously deformed of his limbs, and made lame; his younger son in a small puddle was strangled and drowned; and he being of extreme age, arraigned, and found guilty of a murder, and by his clergy saved. And as for his thousand pounds, king Richard gave him not one farthing, saying that he which would be untrue to so good a master, would be false to all other: howbeit some say that he had a small office or a farm to stop his mouth withal. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)This account is replicated by Hall (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York), and also appears in Sackville’s entry in The Mirror of Magistrates (see The Complaint of Henry Duke of Buckingham). Sackville, in particular, adds prophetic details of Banastre’s future to Buckingham’s curse. The consequences of Banastre’s actions (and Buckingham’s curse) are clearly emphasized.
vengeance
Personal retribution (OED vengeance, n.2.a).
The first use of this word since the ghost’s
Vendicta(see Prologue Sp1), it will be quickly repeated in the next scene by Richard (see Sc18 Sp2).
Ixion … wheel
In Greek mythology, Ixion, king of Thessaly, whose lust for Hera offended Zeus, was
cast into the sky bound to a spinning, winged wheel of fire. Buckingham wishes greater
torments on Banastre than Ixion endured. According to the accounts in Holinshed (see
Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland), Hall (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York), and in Sackville’s Mirror for Magistrates entry (see The Complaint of Henry Duke of Buckingham), Buckingham’s wish may have been answered.
let me
Allow them to take me.
My lord … Banastre
The final moment in this scene is one of great tension as the two sides face off,
with Buckingham and Banastre between them. The Herald’s apology demonstrates his understanding
of the difficult task he has been given, and also works to pacify Buckingham’s supporters.
While Buckingham’s men may still have their weapons raised, the Herald’s men are no
longer on the attack. Banastre’s arrest may be a further concession to Buckingham’s
followers: the actors have the decision to make here whether Banastre is arrested
by the Herald’s men or if he is handed over to Buckingham’s followers.
King Richard, crowned
Richard has come from his coronation, replicated in Shakespeare (see R3 4.2.1). This is the first reference to Richard as king in stage directions; he likely wears
the crown here. While a king may not necessarily wear his crown in daily use, the
change in Richard’s status for the sake of the audience would require its presence.
Given that Richard is coming directly from his coronation, this is a logical addition
which makes it clear that he has ascended to king, without having to state it.
ventured
Risked.
friends
Former allies (Buckingham), family members (Clarence, the princes), relations by marriage
(Rivers, Grey).
severe judge
God of
Last Judgment.
Richard is beset with guilt he must explain in the afterlife.
severe judge
The fact a damnèd judgment craves a crime which demands punishment in hell.
This suggests the proverbial
blood will have blood(Tilley B458), also cited in Macbeth (3.4.120). This also suggests the earlier
blood is a threatener(see Sc10 Sp1).
crown … wear
Symbol of kingship that was once easy to support.
As he rose in power, Richard saw the crown as a symbol of his right, and the valuable
stones which comprise it as reflective of his gains. Now that he wears it, his burden
of criminal actions weighs heavily on his conscience.
raging … on me
Angry demons have transferred their dreadful spirits through hell to infuse them in
me.
Stygian lakes
In Greek mythology, fiery lakes of the Styx, the river over which Charon must ferry
the shades of the dead before they settle in the underworld.
Q shows
studient,which suggests a typesetter’s or scribal error, while Boswell proposed this correction. To retain
studient,or conscientious, studious (OED studient, adj.1) removes connection with the lakes Richard’s tormentors inhabit.
addressed
Directed (OED address, v.I.1); prepared (for a particular purpose) (OED address, v.II.12.a).
If’t … good. Catesby
This series of eight lines in Q has over-long lines and awkward speech patterns, which
suggests Richard’s thought processes fragment through prose as he struggles to communicate,
even with himself.
i’this extremity
Facing
the utmost penalty(OED extremity, n.3.b).
The verse breaks down as Richard considers how to proceed with his unfamiliar burden
of conscience. This disruption reflects Richard’s flagging inner confidence.
E’en repent
Should I ask for forgiveness?
thy righteous god
Richard turns on the audience to mock their faith and ridicules the idea of asking
for mercy.
Ha, repent
Richard’s reversed repentance is shorter than its equivalent in Shakespeare (see R3 5.4.157–202). In this case, Richard laughs at the idea in barely two lines.
Thy god … mine
The god you worship is not the god I worship.
Soul … body
So deep in blood, Richard chooses certain damnation by staying his course.
That’s good
I have decided.
troubles … overcomed
Richard’s need for reassurance and his growing sense he himself may be England’s biggest
problem demonstrates his paranoia and jumpiness. Field notes that the clumsy final
word is
an ancient participle of come(Field 47).
thou points … me
Catesby does not necessarily physically point (although that offers comic opportunities):
Richard accuses him of equivocating.
else not
No one.
Salisbury
Buckingham was executed here on 2 November 1483 in the public marketplace. He requested
audience with Richard in the hopes of assassinating him, but was refused (Davies).
Holinshed records:
when Buckingham had confessed the whole fact & conspiracy, upon All-Soul’s Day, without arraignment or judgment, he was at Salisbury in the open market place, on a new scaffold beheaded and put to death(see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland).
to be … head
Richard mocks Buckingham’s support of Richmond’s claim to the throne.
if ’a do
If he does.
fames
notoriety.
Greg (1929, ix) lists this as a doubtful reading, and proposes Field’s conj.
flames(48) as an alternative, but the logic of “outlive me in flames” is spurious as it proposes damnation for Buckingham. The Ransom text is damaged on this line, which makes clarity difficult.
he hops … head
The action of a dead chicken. Buckingham lost his head for treason before he could
enact any of his plans and repeats his earlier phrasing (see Sc3 Sp3).
Richmond
The future Henry VII.
Richard is conscious of Richmond’s right to the throne by family, marriage and battle,
and the audience would be well aware of his historical importance. Richard’s first
mention of his opponent comes only 60 lines after Buckingham’s first (see Sc13 Sp13). Once an irritant, he is becoming a major problem, particularly as nobles continue
to defect.
Brittany … duke
After defeat at Tewkesbury, remaining Lancastrians crossed the channel to the court
of Duke François II of Brittany. François recognized the political advantages of Richmond’s
cause, hosted him in Rennes for over a decade, and supported both invasion attempts.
conspires
Actively plots.
lineally descended
Richmond’s claim was valid, as great-great-great-grandson of Edward III through his
mother, Margaret Beaufort. Richard notes a connection through Richmond’s grandmother,
Catherine of Valois, widow of Henry V, dependent on marriage rather than blood.
hath right
Has a claim.
what thinkst thou
What is your impression?
doth deserve
Has earned, is worthy.
as good … foe
Catesby confesses that one so esteemed as Richmond would be a valuable ally.
due … traitor
The inevitable fate of any who dare to rebel or betray; that is, beheading, if not
hanged, drawn, and quartered.
strengthening … title
Improving of his claim. Marrying Elizabeth takes Richmond’s claim from tenuous to
impressive.
all the … Brittany
This timeline is compacted: Catesby says Buckingham died the day before (November
3) but Richmond declared his intent to marry Elizabeth at Rennes on December 25. Richmond’s
allies saw his announcement of intention as constituting a strong claim on the throne.
there it goes
You have proven my point.
A marriage … blood
Faux-proverbial: a marriage undertaken for the wrong reasons will end badly. Richard’s
phrasing is unique to this play.
perilous birds
Dangerous exiles. Richard continues the avian metaphor from the
hatchingconspiracies manifested by the
flightof so many enemies to Richmond’s side.
earl … nobility
Richmond has formed an army with a growing list of defectors and prepares to invade.
aid in France
Richmond also spent time in the French court after Pierre Landais turned on him in
1484 and attempted to extradite him to England at Richard III’s request. Richmond
evaded Landais and found the support of the young French king, Charles VIII, who provided
troops and resources for Richmond’s invasion (Gunn).
rescued in Brittany
François II, the Duke of Brittany, sheltered Lancastrian exiles in exchange for political
favor.
But all … rescue
Richard’s phrasing indicates a growing panic that he cannot seem to control. Run-together
statements that begin with
butindicates that he is beginning to piece together the full picture and negotiates with himself as he leaps from conclusion to conclusion. His phrasing makes clear that he is losing his grip on the situation.
escape from Landais
Pierre Landais, who appears briefly in the following scene, was treasurer to François
II, duke of Brittany, and negotiated with Richard to surrender Richmond (see Sc15 SD1). Before Landais could complete the transaction, Richmond escaped to France. In this
play, Landais’ treachery does not undermine their relationship.
ended all
Solved the problem before it began.
disgrace
Landais’ treason infuriated the ailing Breton duke François II, who had appointed
him proxy ruler as he recovered. Landais was exiled (then executed) for his efforts.
In reality, Landais died a month prior to the Battle of Bosworth, but he remains in
this play as a key link to Brittany.
biting dogs … curs
Richard likens Richmond’s followers to dogs; the biting dogs are the ones who are
actively supporting Richmond, including his French allies, while the sleeping curs
are Richmond’s allies in England who are waiting for his arrival before they declare
their intentions. Richard is aware of how much ground he is losing.
wake … foe
Arouse the English enemy.
Brittany’s gamble was considerable, and its hope for nationhood would have been demolished
had Richard defeated Richmond and taken revenge for their support. Instead, Brittany
held a powerful ally in Henry VII.
evil … war
Traitorous actions justify the punishments that follow.
Stanley
Spelled as Standley in Q and all subsequent editions, but universally corrected for
this edition.
father-in-law
Stepfather(OED father-in-law, n.2, now arch. and hist.).
Stanley was married to Margaret Beaufort, Richmond’s mother, in 1572, when Richmond
was 15 years old.
guilty death
A traitor’s execution.
letters … embassage
Stanley did not travel to Brittany but was suspected of receiving communications from
Richmond and his allies.
George
George Stanley was 25 at Bosworth, but given the tenor of his lines, he was played
by one of the boy-actors who performed as princes. Roberts-Smith has argued for the
casting of the company’s youngest boy, to heighten sympathy (2012, 198).
for that … received
I have sent as much as I have received; in other words, nothing.
I do … mistrust
I am not worried about.
Stanley may claim he felt Richard means George.
he
Richmond.
Richard is yet to use his name but won’t let Stanley quibble.
nobility
Defector lords.
nor willingly … causes
Accounts vary on Stanley’s loyalty to his king and son-in-law; his political indecision
played out at Bosworth, where he (reportedly) waited to decide what side to join.
This wavering offers a rich source of subtext for any actor.
golden … eloquence
Richard mocks Stanley’s evasive answers and eloquent speech.
out of … England
An asynchronous link to an earlier conversation; Richard claims Stanley did not tell
him Richmond went to Brittany, which occurred a decade prior.
pass over
Go into exile; also cross the channel.
but
Only.
fine-colored tale
Wittily-constructed lie.
whereas you mistrust
Even if you do not believe.
at his
At the time of his.
was I … council
Stanley emphasizes his loyalty to Edward IV at the time Richmond fled, so he was not
party to his step-son’s plans.
she
Margaret Beaufort, Richmond’s mother.
relieve … help
Margaret’s role in Richmond’s rise was well known, and so Stanley does not attempt
to suggest otherwise, but claims she offered such support.
furnish … munition
Richard has no proof Stanley funded Richmond but is happy to accuse.
repair
Reason for travelling.
Cheshire … Lancashire
Stanley owned estates (Tatton Park, Cheshire and Lathom House, Lancashire) close enough
to the coast to justify Richard’s suspicion.
posts pass invisible
Messages be sent without being noticed.
or else
And then I would have to.
intolerable foe
Richmond.
Richard says if Stanley is able to pass messages (and military intelligence) to his
step-son, the threat of Richmond’s influence will become too great to tolerate.
I will not
I do not want.
but
Except.
pledge
Hostage.
This word occurs four times within fourteen lines and emphasizes the lengths to which
Richard will go to frighten him into submission (see Sc14 Sp43; Sc14 Sp43; Sc14 Sp44; Sc14 Sp45).
leaving me here
Richard’s imprisonment of George was reported by Holinshed:
For the lord Stanley was afraid, least if he should seem openly to be a fautor or aider to the earl his son in law, before the day of the battle, that king Richard, which yet utterly did not put in him diffidence and mistrust, would put to some cruel death his son and heir apparent George lord Strange, whom king Richard (as you have heard before) kept with him as a pledge or hostage, to the intent that the lord Stanley his father should attempt nothing prejudicial to him. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
that … should be
I will kill if you betray me.
Advise … cause
I must decide what do for my private plan.
Stanley is caught in a dilemma: he must maintain his conspiracy to support Richmond,
but at the same time work out a plan to deceive Richard and save George.
faith be kept
Do as I have promised.
set … defense
Richard allows Stanley his liberty with assurance of obedience. Richard takes a calculated
risk to keep Stanley as his ally.
prevent … power
End his campaign with your loyal soldiers.
Vergil reports
about 3.M. were […] at the battle of Bosworth, under the conduct of William Stanley,or three thousand men (see Anglia Historia). Stanley’s army nearly doubled Richmond’s, and Richard hoped Stanley would overwhelm Richmond before Bosworth.
of my life
On my honor.
shall … will
Will be disastrous for you if I do.
letters
The stage picture would suggest an emotional embrace between Stanley and the small
boy, an affecting image that Richard appears not to understand.
Stanley’s moment of farewell is elaborate enough that Richard suspects he is passing
information, or retrieving letters held by the boy for safety.
I have done
I am finished (embracing my son).
second … sweet
An additional embrace is justified.
Stanley believes this the last time he will see George, a sign he has resolved to
sacrifice his son.
To an attendant
Catesby is the only named member to appear in Richard’s court so far in this scene,
but he is not available to take George Stanley to prison. A member of Richard’s unnamed
retinue as described at the beginning of the scene will take him away.
prison
Richard is unequivocal about George’s fate, and immediately sheds the illusion he
will care for George until Stanley’s safe return.
prick … dam
Injuring the child will also hurt the parent.
Faux-proverbial; having George in custody is as effective as directly wounding his
father, or, more accurately, his mother, Margaret Beaufort, mother to both George
and Richmond.
so excellent
I like very much.
Lord … Queen
The first mention of Lovell, one of Richard’s advisors, and reportedly his closest
friend (Horrox). Lovell has been sent to sound out the Mother Queen on a proposition of marriage
to the princess.
Churchill notes that the act of sending Lovell to the Mother Queen (not a nameless
messenger as noted in the chronicles) matches with the same action in Legge. As Churchill
points out, in Richardus Tertius, Lovell is Richard’s appointed wooer (479).
in good time
A colloquial greeting, loosely meaning
Lovely to see you.
Also:
speak of the devil.McMillin and MacLean refer to this as the
see, my lord, where he comesphenomenon, to announce the next scene’s content before showing the scene, which they characterize as
the Queen’s Men telling the ‘truthʼ at their worst(134–135).
she quickly … consent
It appears the Princess’s consent (agreed to by the Mother Queen) was feigned.
Holinshed records:
the messengers, being men both of wit and gravity, so persuaded the queen with great and pregnant reasons, & what with fair and large promises, that she began somewhat to relent, and to give to them no deaf ear; insomuch that she faithfully promised to submit and yield herself fully and frankly to the king’s will and pleasure. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)Ultimately, however,
all men and the maiden herself Princess Elizabeth […] detested and abhorred this unlawful, and in manner unnatural copulation(see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland). As Edward IV’s children were disinherited for their father’s prior verbal engagement with Lady Eleanor Talbot, this commitment was likely sufficient for Richard’s needs.
leave sanctuary
Holinshed blames Richard’s messengers for Elizabeth’s decision to leave sanctuary:
And so she putting in oblivion the murder of her innocent children, the infamy and dishonor spoken by the king her husband, the living in adultery laid to her charge, the bastarding of her daughters; forgetting also the faithful promise and open oath made to the countess of Richmond, mother to the earl Henry, blinded by avaricious affection, & seduced by flattering words, first delivered into King Richard’s hands her five daughters, as lambs once again committed to the custody of the ravenous wolf. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
Be careful … it
Treat this with great caution.
such … forever
Richard correctly identifies Elizabeth as the key to Richmond’s hopes. Richard notes
if Richmond can win Elizabeth, he and his heirs will be assured of a successful future.
Nottingham
A city in the Midlands region, which lays 128 miles north of London, and served as
a strategic meeting place given its position at a ford over the Trent River. While
Nottingham is closer to London than to Scotland, the relative median point made this
a logical parley location. This reference compacts the timeline. Consecutive entries
in the Acta Regia for September 1484 records
A Treaty of Truce for three Years betwixt England and Scotland; dated September the 20th as above meaning, at Nottingham.The following entry records the agreement:
ANOTHER for the 1606–1607 Marriage of the Prince of Scotland with Anne of Suffolk; dated September the 21st, as above(32). These treaties were agreed on September 20 and 21, 1484. Catesby notes Buckingham was executed the day before, on 3 November 1483, or ten months prior.
Gog’s
God’s (OED Gog, n.1.2).
This corruption allowed the speaker to blaspheme without using God’s name, and was
common in early modern drama. Łodej identifies 215 instances of variants on
gog’sin plays during the 15th and 16th centuries (372).
Scottish … Rosa
The prince of Rothsay and Anne de la Pole, here nicknamed
Rosafor her adoption of the title
princess of Rothsayon her betrothal (Churchill 452).
Hall notes this alliance was concluded for the benefit of Richard’s sister Anne and
the advancement of her line (Hall 401). Rothsay was the future King James IV of Scotland, making this connection potentially
profitable, but after Richard’s death, the engagement was voided (Hall 400), and Anne became a nun. James IV married Henry VIII’s sister Margaret Tudor.
you give … that
Allow me to decide whether I will share that with you.
somewhat … besides
More to tell.
Captain … Castle
The son of Walter Blount, 1st Baron Mountjoy, James Blount was commander of the English
fortress of Hammes Castle in Calais. Hammes was one of a group of surrounding fortifications
which defended Calais and maintained English garrisons and prisoners (Grummitt 64).
Blount was Oxford’s jailer at Hammes Castle in Calais. Blount became disaffected with
Richard’s rule, and when the like-minded Oxford was commanded to return to England,
Blount saw the opportunity to travel with Oxford in order to join up with Richmond.
I take … leave
As the bearer of bad news, it is not surprising the messenger tries to exit immediately
before he bears Richard’s wrath.
betrayed
Proven himself disloyal (OED betrayed, adj.1).
Blount, as commander of Hammes Castle in Calais, was officially aligned with Richard,
but switched to support Richmond.
prison … pleasures
A source of Richard’s paranoia is the defection or rebellion of those he thought loyal.
The ease with which Oxford and Blount took advantage of political orders to leave
Calais and the exodus to Richmond represented shifting ground below his feet.
complex
Taking into possession, or laying hold of the kingdom.
Q has Conflex, a difficult word to justify in this context. In Latin, as a noun complexus means “close grip (of an enemy),” whereas confligo, conflixi, conflictum means to be in conflict, struggle, fight. Other alternatives considered include conflict, or “struggle with (an enemy)” and conflux, meaning “flow or pour together,” but neither of these provides a superior reading.
How are … swords
Richard knows that, since his own allies betray him, he cannot overcome Richmond.
of his
With an army led by Richmond.
Shakespeare similarly dismisses Richmond’s army (see R3 5.5.43-70). Field suggests this might be a point of corruption (Field 54) but it is possible to make sense of it as it stands.
neither … shall
None of these things will happen.
arm … enemies
Fight alongside those loyal to me and we will destroy the traitors.
but one
Only Richmond concerns Richard, as his last rival for power.
his power … weak
He has a small, unimpressive army.
melody
The sound of
singingbullets in a barrage of gun-fire, alluding to the superior weaponry of Richard’s forces.
his longest home
His grave.
England’s
In fact, the landing was at Milford Haven, Wales, subsumed into England, but the prince
of Wales, heir to the English throne, had been invested separately since 1301.
blissful isle
Blessed […] sacred, holyisland (OED blissful, adj.3).
Richmond first attempted to invade England in late 1483, but a series of mishaps prevented
his landing. This scene depicts his August 1485 first contact with British soil, in
Milford Haven, Wales.
sole
As brother and uncle to kings and son to a claimant, Richard had a stronger claim,
which Richmond dismisses. Henry VI’s death made Richmond head of the Lancastrian line,
and his engagement to Elizabeth offered a strengthened claim in the union of a Lancastrian
and a Yorkist.
guiltless blood craves
The blood of the innocent dead demands or importunes.
countrymen
Welshmen, and by extension, Britons.
Richmond is one of the few kings of England born in Wales, less than nine miles from
his landing at Milford Haven. Henry V was also born in Wales, in Monmouth.
God
Vergil notes Richmond’s piety:
he freely gave his help to divine matters, attended services when they were held, and was never prevented from this observance by any press of business or lack of time. He attentively heard Mass twice or thrice daily, and often listened to sermons, assiduously gave charity to the poor, and indeed did so secretly. (Sutton, ed. 50)These actions explain his regular evocation of God.
fear … foes
Military desperation. Without Stanley’s army, Richmond was outnumbered two to one
(see Sc17 Sp20).
Thy foot … shore
Oxford’s loyalty to Richmond has roots in their Lancastrian origins. Oxford and Blount’s
meeting Richmond in Britain is historically inaccurate.
underta’en
Taken in hand; enterprised(OED undertaken, adj.2). Presumably Oxford’s choice to join Richmond’s cause is a death sentence if the invasion fails to defeat Richard.
resolution
conqueror
One who subdues or subjugates a nation(OED conqueror, n.1.a).
This is likely not a coincidental link to William the Conqueror, given their similar
vectors of conquest across the channel to subdue Britain. Similarly, this phrase helps
to consciously elevate Richmond from one with a tenuous claim on the crown to a glorious
conqueror.
field
Battlefield(OED field, n.1.I.ii.6.a).
Richmond, determined to win in battle to prove his worth militarily, marched on London
to force Richard into combat. He was the last king of England to succeed by such means.
Or lose … right
Or die in the pursuit of a just cause.
Oxford notes the potential of Richmond’s martyrdom as secondary to the glory of his
victory.
right
Legal or moral entitlement for an action (OED right, n.II.9.d).
Oxford’s repetition emphasizes Richmond’s claim.
Richard’s brood
Richard’s allies, prideful peacocks (proverbial, Tilley P157).
Oxford casts doubt on their substance: stylish and showy but holding no fear.
straight to arms
Immediately to battle.
Having landed at Milford Haven, Richmond’s retinue was not under direct threat: as
Vergil notes:
he came unto Wales the 7th day after, a little before sunset, where, entering the haven called Milford, and forthwith going a-land, he took first a place the name whereof is Dale, where he heard that certain companies of his adversaries had had their stations the winter bypassed to have kept him from landing. From thence departing in the break of day he went to Haverford, which is a town not ten miles from Dale, where he was received with great goodwill of all men. (see Anglia Historia)By calling the men immediately to arms, even though they were on friendly ground, the playwright compacts time and suggests the battle is near.
God … for us
Battle cry of the Hundred Years’ War started by Edward III, Richmond’s ancestor. Edward
III joined his order of the garter to St. George as an emblem of England.
Beyond the British battle-cry (as used in many history plays including Henry V), Oxford also pairs St. George and God to evoke Richmond’s divine right, and likens
Richard to the kind of dragon St. George was supposed to have slain. England is overrun
by a monster, and bringing the conquering Richmond to slay him (notwithstanding that
Richmond was Welsh, itself represented by the red dragon), calls the hearers to order.
valor
Worth or worthiness(OED valour, n.1.b).
In fact, the long-exiled Richmond had had little opportunity to show his valor in
times past: Bosworth was his first battlefield engagement. He was, however, raised
in martial environments, including time spent with the earls of Pembroke (Jasper Tudor
and William Herbert), and in his exile in Brittany and France, he would have been
exposed to training in horsemanship, hand-to-hand combat, fencing, and military strategy.
unfeignèd
Sincere, genuine, true(OED unfeigned, adj.1).
Landais refers to the feigned love that characterizes the followers of Richard, given
his general unpopularity in Tudor depictions. For example, schoolmaster William Collingbourne
nailed a mocking poem to the door of St. Paul’s:
The Cat Catesby, the Rat Ratcliffe, and Lovell our dog, / Rule all England under an hog Richardwhich, according to Holinshed,
caused Collingbourne to be abbreviated shorter by the head, and to be divided into four quarters (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland).This
gang of four animalssuggests Richard’s inner circle was reputed as small.
Queen Mother
The only instance in the play in which the Mother Queen, Elizabeth Woodville, is referred
to as
Queen Mother(for metrical purposes). The Mother Queen has not yet consented that Richmond marry Princess Elizabeth, a major key to preventing any further dissent from Yorkists.
peers have promised
On Christmas Day, 1483, Richmond swore publicly to marry Elizabeth of York before
the gathered lords (or peers) who, endorsed and supported this means of unifying the
houses.
As reported by Holinshed:
In the which season the feast of the Nativity of our savior Christ happened, on which day all the English lords went with their solemnity to the chief church of the city, and there each gave faith and promise to other the earl himself first took a corporal oath on his honor, promising that incontinent after he should be possessed of the crown and dignity of the realm of England, he would be conjoined in matrimony with the lady Elizabeth daughter to king Edward the fourth. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
Edward’s … day
Landais retrofits the coronation of Edward—obviously a dark day for Lancastrians—by
noting that without it, there could be no new alliance between Richmond and Elizabeth.
The presence of Edward in this moment is potentially confusing, given the focus on Richmond, soon to become
Henry VII. A change from Edward to Richmond might smooth an audience’s understanding of what coronation we mean, but also removes
the texture involved with acknowledging the young king’s short reign. Thanks to Jenny
Parr for a suggestion of how Richmond might be a logical update in performance.
deal
Manage, restore proper rule.
Richmond promises a different style from his predecessors:
based on the English tradition of limited participatory monarchy. […] Richmond swears to uphold the laws of the realm, eliminate threats to national stability, and protect the commonwealth provided that the nobles and commons uphold their promise to support his bid for the throne. (Bezio 72)
brambles, … sprigs
Literally, prickly fast-spreading shrubs; metaphorically, snags, delays, and difficulties,
particularly seen as foreign plants choking out the native flora. Sprigs are small
decorative treesthat might be ruined by the presence of the aggressive plants that
overgrow them.
spring … effect
Bounce back to their original state.
prove … commonweal
Turn out to be exemplary members of the wider state and community (OED commonweal, n.2).
Roman state
Bezio notes this reference:
invokes hierarchical law rather than the traditional limited monarchy implied by the use […] of ‘commonwealʼ and […] ‘council’s rule.ʼ Richmond is a mixture of divine right and limited monarchy that claims absolutism, yet acknowledges the power of the commonwealth and council. (Bezio 72; see Sc15 Sp5; Sc15 Sp5)
council’s rule
Concilium plebis, or the plebeian council, which allowed commoners governmental structure
through which laws and statutes were passed. Richmond’s suggestion is that this fair
and balanced manner of governing honored the Roman state.
And I … sword
Richmond wishes to take England by force, not policy, in the tradition seen in earlier
kings like Richard I, Edward III, Richard II, and Henry IV and V. Henry VI was a reluctant
soldier, and so was defeated by Edward IV and his Yorkist supporters.
long … good
Richmond implies yearning for the oppressed English to support and contribute to his
cause, which heightens Richard’s infamy and Richmond’s urgency. This desire works
most immediately for Oxford, who chooses to be at Richmond’s side at risk of his own
life, and Lord Stanley, despite the threat to his son George.
garrison
Even though Wales was historically Lancastrian-sympathetic, Richard retained defensive
troops across the country to protect against invasion by countries trying to take
advantage of the Lancastrian-Yorkist divide.
Milford Haven
After Richmond’s unsuccessful earlier invasion, Richard’s forces in Wales were on
the lookout in Dale Castle, Pembrokeshire, 3 km south of Henry’s eventual landing
site. Oxford notes how close they came to detection by landing in Mill Bay, at the
mouth of Milford Haven.
duke of Buckingham
The loss of Buckingham was a serious blow to Richmond:
when he had heard these news thus reported, he first sorrowed and lamented his first attempt and setting forward of his friends, and in especial of the nobility, not to have more fortunately succeeded(Holinshed 420).
secretly put up
Plotted in secret.
upstarts
Rivers and Grey.
usurping king
Richard’s path to the throne and the disappearance of the princes comprised a favored
narrative for Richmond’s propaganda against his predecessor. There appears to be little
irony in Oxford’s line given that he has the fullest of intentions of living in England
under the next usurping king, Henry VII. The act of invading England and overthrowing
an anointed king problematizes the concept of the divine right of kings, however:
both True Tragedy and Richard III suggest the primacy of designation over direct divine intervention, tacitly authorizing rebellion against tyranny by aligning it with the founder of the Tudor dynasty(Bezio 72).
resolution
A fixed or positive intentionor ambition (OED resolution, n.1.III.11.a).
Oxford uses the same word above (see Sc15 Sp2).
Mother Queen
The Mother Queen holds status as the mother of the princes in the Tower, whose deaths
are still unreported. This title is doubly appropriate as mother to Elizabeth, Richmond’s
future queen.
Lady Stanley
Margaret Beaufort, great-grand-daughter of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, bore
the future Henry VII only months after the plague death of her husband Edmund Tudor,
the first earl of Richmond and half-brother of Henry VI.
Margaret was separated from her son after the ascension of Edward IV, but energetically
positioned Richmond (the second earl) as the alternate Lancastrian heir. Margaret’s
marriage to Stanley grew from a political union into something more lasting and was
cause for Richard’s ultimately justified mistrust in Stanley (Jones).
Admit him straight
Bring him immediately into my presence.
our mother
Richmond’s mother lived a life of danger from her association with Anne Neville, Richmond,
Stanley, and Elizabeth Woodville. Richmond is right to ask after her well-being, although
Richard’s need for Stanley’s assistance bought her more freedom than most.
Lord Talbot
The fourth Earl of Shrewsbury, who supported Richmond at Bosworth and lived to advise
Henry VIII.
Lord FitzHerbert
The identity of FitzHerbert is in doubt, but his Herbert connection suggests the congregation
of notable families to Richmond’s side.
The use of
Fitzpotentially links this man to Sir Richard Herbert, bastard son of the earl of Pembroke. He was the elder brother but as a bastard did not inherit the title and was a notable figure under Henry VII. Alternately, Churchill proposes this man
was really Sir Walter Herbert, second son of the first Herbert Earl of Pembroke(456). The father to both, Sir William Herbert, supported Richard III, but his inaction at Bosworth was telling (Ross 211).
Sir Rhys … Thomas
A Welsh landowner whom Richard III attempted to woo prior to Richmond’s landing, and
demanded ransom of Sir Rhys’s son in exchange for his loyalty (as with George Stanley).
Despite this threat, Sir Rhys has been noted as having greeted Richmond on landing
in Wales and fought valiantly for him at Bosworth. Foard and Curry question this account
and suggest Sir Rhys kept his decision until much closer to the battle (37). Poet Gut’or Glyn claims Sir Rhys struck the killing blow in Richard’s death (Griffith 43). He was an important figure under both Henry VII and Henry VIII (Griffiths).
Sir … Williams
Fictional Welsh lords, although it is likely that the former is a corruption of Sir
Richard ap Thomas, mentioned by Hall (Hall 411).
Thomas Dennis
An unknown gentleman.
Dennis does not physically appear in Q: this is his only mention as a
Western gentleman.Churchill notes the following piece of trivia:
in the sketch of the persons occupied in one act of a play on Richard found in the papers of Actor Edward Alleyn, the same name occurs. ‘3rd scene. Ansell, Dangr. Denys, Hen. Oxf. Courtney, Bouchier and Grace. To them Rice ap Tho. and his Souldiers.ʼ The other names would seem to indicate that here also Dennis was one of those who came to Henry Richmond. (456)While this is unlikely to be a company list from The True Tragedy, the fact that historical names Hen. (Richmond), Oxf. (Oxford), Bouchier (archbishop), and Rice ap Tho. (Rhys ap Thomas) accompany that of Denys (Dennis) suggests that Dennis may be a forgotten figure from history.
Arnold Butler
Vergil reports that:
the inhabitants of Pembroke, at the same very time, comforted all their dismayed minds, for they gave intelligence, by Arnold Butler, a valiant man, demanding forgiveness of their former offences, that they were ready to serve Jasper, their earl. (see Anglia Historia; 216)This refers to Jasper Tudor, earl of Pembroke and Richmond’s uncle.
his treachery
Butler supported both Yorkist and Lancastrian causes, hence Richmond’s reaction. The
influence Butler brought, however, meant that in exchange for his pledge, he
only asked for pardon for any service given to the Yorkists, which was readily agreed(Breverton, n.p.). Hall notes Butler was:
a valiaunt capitain, which first askynge perdon for his offences before tyme committed against the erle of Richmond, and that obteyned, declared to hym that the penbrochians were ready to serue & geue their attendaunce on their natural and immediate lord lasper erle of Penbrooke. (Hall 410)
’mends
Amends, satisfaction (OED amends, n.I.2).
After Bosworth, Butler went into service under Rhys ap Thomas, where he trained young
men in military discipline (Breverton, n.p.).
Well, my … best
This transition is awkwardly phrased in Q, aligned as verse but difficult to scan.
While there are some structural hints that these may indeed be verse lines, including
the abcb rhyme scheme (rest/best) that works if retained as printed, the scansion
is unwieldy. Oxford and Richmond speak in prose prior to this line (see Sc15 Sp10), as Richmond prepares to move into his verse-based tactics (see Sc15 Sp19). The meter is so consistent later in this speech that the muddiness in this section
suggests that this is a hangover from the prose structure of the previous lines. Secondarily,
if we take the repetition of
my lordsas an indication towards a shift in tone (see Sc15 Sp19), then the second
But now my lordscan be read as a redirection into verse (see Sc15 Sp19). While this reading does omit a abcb rhyme, it also separates a very long line (But now … battle best) into a more manageable format (see Sc15 Sp19).
battle
Richmond’s battalion, either an entire army,
or one of its main divisions(OED battle, n.II.8.a).
foremost … fight
At the front of the battle formation.
Holinshed notes that while Richmond sought Richard, he did not lead from the front,
but had his battalions engage Richard’s troops before him:
While the two fore wards thus mortally fought, each intending to vanquish and convince the other; king Richard was admonished by his explorators and espials, that the earl of Richmond (accompanied with a small number of men of arms) was not far off. And as he approached and marched toward him, he perfectly knew his personage by certain demonstrations and tokens, which he had learned and known of others that were able to give him full information. Now being inflamed with ire, and vexed with outrageous malice, he put his spurs to his horse, and rode out of the side of the range of his battle, leaving the vanguard fighting; and like a hungry lion ran with spear in rest toward him. The earl of Richmond perceived well the king furiously coming toward him, and because the whole hope of his wealth and purpose was to be determined by battle, he gladly proffered to encounter with him body to body, and man to man. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
leading … rear
Command of the rearguard battalions.
He actually led the vanguard, so these positions are reversed:
The earl of Oxford in the mean season, fearing least while his company was fighting, they should be compassed and circumvented with the multitude of the enemies, gave commandment in every rank, that no man should be so hardy, as to go above ten foot from the standard. Which commandment once known, they knit themselves together, and ceased a little from fighting. The adversaries suddenly abashed at the matter, and mistrusting some fraud and deceit, began also to pause and left striking; and not against the wills of many, which had rather had the king destroyed, than saved, and therefore they fought very faintly, or stood still. (see Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
by in quarters
Stand in reserve, ready to join.
Richmond’s well-organised reserve actions were crucial to his success.
scouts
Soldiers ahead of the main battle to gain information (OED scout, n.4.2.a).
Richmond’s commands seem dependent on such reconnaissance, but also anticipate the
terrain that had, at this point, not yet been decided upon. Market Bosworth was settled
long after Richmond’s landing in Wales. Without a sense of terrain, these tactics
are impossible to rely upon.
your bowmen … scatter
Disperse the archers to offer shifting targets.
Holinshed notes:
When king Richard saw the earl’s company was past the marsh; he did command with all haste to set upon them. Then the trumpets sounded, and the soldiers shouted, and the king’s archers courageously let fly their arrows. The earl’s bowmen stood not still, but paid them home again. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
our promised friends
Stanley’s troops.
countermarch
Reversal of direction in battle, to execute a pincer move on the enemy (OED countermarch, n.1).
casting
Throwing of an arrow (Howlet, Castynge or throwynge of an arowe, batte, or Iauelyn).
His description suggests plans for a flanking barrage.
Atherstone
Atherstone Priory, some eight miles distant from Market Bosworth.
Richmond spent the night at the Three Tuns Hostelry prior to the Battle of Bosworth
and took communion there.
Lichfield
Lichfield is a cathedral city in Staffordshire, 16 miles north of Birmingham.
The itinerary here is out of order: in fact, Richmond visited Lichfield on August
20, where he met Stanley:
And after that the earl and he had communed no long time together; he reverted to his soldiers whom he had assembled together to serve the earl: which from thence departed to Lichfield, and lay without the walls in his camp all the night. (see Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)Richmond then traveled east from Lichfield to Atherstone on August 21, and on August 22 to Market Bosworth.
nearer London
Richmond
intended to pass over the river of Severn at Shrewsbury, and so to pass directly to the city of London(Holinshed 435) to challenge Richard. Market Bosworth was the point the armies met.
Where shall … king?
The Page is loyal, but here betrays his king’s difficulty with conscience. Shakespeare
dramatizes Richard’s guilt through a ghostly dream sequence (R3 5.4.98–186). Here agitation transfers to the Page, who is unable to express sadness in the king’s
presence. Walsh places this reaction in opposition to the Page’s earlier attitude
as evidence the Page offers two responses to Richard, which
gives the audience alternate choices against which to formulate their own response to the title figure and, by extension, the play itself(85).
sore-troubled
Sorely upset, greatly agitated.
better … man
Would be better off were he a commoner, or at least not in public office. Richard’s
mental state derives from his methods of becoming king, a burden too great to bear.
looks are ghastly
Demeanor is grim, horrible, terrible, fearful (Cotgrave, Hideusement).
This same term is used to describe the princes’ murderers (see Sc12 Sp33). Richard is turning self-destructively into his own victim by replicating the experience
of his nephews.
moves … company
Compels me to grieve too so he does not grieve alone. Whether the Page is commanded
or inspired to bewail Richard’s guilt is not stated, but his general demeanor suggests
sympathy, or potentially fear for himself if he doesn’t sympathize with his king.
whatsoe’er he be
No matter who it is.
the just … sins
The expected punishment God has wrought for his actions.
unkindly murderèd
Killed in an underhanded or treacherous way.
Shakespeare dramatizes each victim as judgmental ghosts (see R3 5.4.98.s.d.–5.4.186).
he in justice
God justifiably.
at bed … board
Both in sleep and waking.
what noise
It is uncertain what kind of noise the Page hears to announce the men as they enter.
Whether it is a clamor of laughter, conversation, or the tramp of feet, it is certainly
loud enough to distract the Page.
camp
Campaign, collection of troops (OED camp, n.2.I.2.a).
This does not imply a fixed campsite: the defectors will try to intercept Richmond’s
forces as they march towards Bosworth.
left to serve
Abandoned the service of.
these … villains
Deserters.
The Page sees Richard’s chances dwindle as he sees the troops Richard depended on
begin to switch sides.
make no … man
Think no more of you than an ordinary man.
as duty binds
As I am obliged to do.
unjust proceedings
left … all
Richmond. Richard’s opinion of Richmond as a minor threat was his downfall.
Oxford
Oxford’s remonstration with Stanley does not appear in the chronicles, but does appear
in Legge’s Richardus Tertius, suggesting the playwright’s familiarity with the earlier play (Churchill 477).
it may … be
I will not allow it.
have … yourself
Please be careful.
scouting abroad
Reconnaissance, spying.
disguised
Richmond has left the safety of his camp, cloaked, to walk in solitude. This action
matches the similar impulses of Shakespeare’s Henry V (see H5 4.1) and Richard III (see R3 5.4.200), who linger around their camps.
last night’s absence
Richmond strikes out without notice, which leaves his soldiers concerned he has deserted.
more liker … fight
Would be more likely to surrender or run than to stand and face the enemy.
confess myself bound
Acknowledge I am beholden.
especial care
Particular concern.
thus forward
So far advanced.
laudable enterprise
Valiant undertaking.
Stanley makes it clear he strongly supports Richmond’s claim.
omitting vain circumstances
Ceasing to speak of useless matters.
much matter
A great deal of important information.
crave leave of
Request an absence from.
began … charge me
Made an accusation.
practices and drifts
Movements and tactics.
only of purpose
For the sole reason.
But omitting this
These facts aside.
An extremely indelicate, crude question, given the strain that George’s arrest has
placed on Stanley.
shall … help
Can I count on your army?
I cannot
Stanley’s reaction hews to the traditional view of Stanley as non-committal, although
he does tend towards Richmond in general.
as I … thee
While I will not fight to aid Richard, nor will I fight alongside you.
the time … troublesome
There are more important things happening at the moment.
tend to follow
Waste time bothering with.
expect no
Do not trouble themselves with.
gristle
A tender or delicate person(OED gristle, n.3). This word refers to his young malleable bones, which indicates he’s a particularly delicate boy. The point is that he is merely a young boy, not a youth or adult.
goes … heart
Saddens me.
molehill … mountain
Richmond adapts the familiar adage to
make a mountain from a molehill(Tilley M1035).
chiefest … thee
Majority of his men will likely defect to your side.
at my pleasure
When I so choose.
on thy … encountering
To your side with very little combat.
Bosworth
Market Bosworth is a small community in Leicestershire, where Richmond’s eastward
progress met Richard’s western progress. The battle took place in an open field south
of the town.
twenty thousand
Estimates vary: Holinshed reports that Richard came with a
huge host(Holinshed 438). Richard’s army has been estimated between 20,000 to 60,000, although the latter is likely exaggerated. Vergil conservatively pegs Richmond’s group at 5,000 (see Anglia Historia), but bolstered with Stanley’s force of 3,000 to 26,000, depending on source (Foard and Curry 39).
hoping upon
Depending on the inclusion of.
The more … obtained
The greater the challenge, the greater the glory in victory.
Quisqam … bonum
This comment on Richard’s hubris is set apart from the rest of Richmond’s speech,
which calls its function into question. This quotation could have been inserted for
the benefit of readers (meaning that it is not spoken on stage), or, much more likely,
was spoken by Richmond at the end of his scene. Latin is spoken by Clarence’s Ghost
and is repeated by Truth and Poetry in the play’s Prologue, which indicates that the
playwright expects the audience to understand the phrasing. The phrasing in Q is slightly
corrupted from the original quote in Seneca (
quisquamne regno gaudet? ô fallax bonum!): the question mark is replaced with a comma, which alters the phrase to “whoever
rejoices in power, O false boon!” or, more conversationally: “What a false boon it
is to he who rejoices in power.” Tangentially, Ullyot examines Seneca’s influence
in Legge’s Ricardus Tertius (111–114), which predates this play. Griffin notes Legge’s play, and its Senecan references,
was familiar to the author of The True Tragedy (69). Greg notes that the use of ôis irregular, as the corresponding word was
Roman in the original(1929, x). Greg (1929, x) notes that Field was responsible for the restoration of this Latin to this phrasing. Given the quotation from Seneca and Q’s separation of this line from the body of the previous speech, this line has been rendered as verse. Churchill proposes this line is a decorative preface to the coming scene, a
motto to its contents(459), but this is impossible to play without assigning it to an actor, so it remains here to close Richmond’s scene.
hell … crown
A thematic continuation of Richard’s earlier speech about the stresses and pressures
of kingship, and guilt over murders in his wake (see Sc14 Sp1). At this stage Richard has seen more allies defect and the reality of invasion increase.
The scene is now more desperate.
wretched crews
Miserable, pathetic troops.
foe
Members of Richmond’s army, largely defectors.
horror … past
Memory of past violent actions and murders that got me where I am.
reaching
Striving, competing.
The sun … revenge
Richard describes a series of chaotic images: sun, moon, and stars seeming to attack;
planets abandoning their proper order; prophetic birds foretelling doom; and both
newborn animals and herds of mature cattle crying out against Richard’s rule.
Richard’s natural, animal, and astrological images escalate to encapsulate his feeling
that all the world wishes revenge on him, as he transforms everything he sees into
an indictment of his guilt. The unwinding verse structure transitions from end-stopped
blank verse:
the form which madness cannot sustain. Prose takes over instead as Richard’s mind gives way—prose which does not entirely lose contact with iambic pentameter, but which breaks through the regularity which the writers for the Queen’s Men assigned to blank verse. (McMillin and MacLean 152)Richard’s list-making indicates a lost grasp on his situation and sanity.
eclipseth
Is hidden by the shadow of the sun.
Richard’s assertion that such chaos is a nightly occurrence exaggerates what he interprets
as foreboding omens. See earlier Richard’s regular shadow imagery (see Sc3 Sp29; Sc14 Sp1).
sorrow
Cry mournfully.
deserved revenge
Earned punishment for my actions.
Richard accepts he has sinned sufficiently to justify that the world wishes him to
be punished.
far worse … death
Richard claims his life of fear is worse than a thousand deaths.
How, wast … said
Wait, did I just say death?
never-dying mind
Undying memory; Richard’s legacy is his certainty of being remembered amongst his
followers.
pressing so near
Getting so close to me.
our friends
Lord Stanley.
Lovell
By sharing lines with Lovell, his close associate, Richard manages to work Lovell
up to the same rage he himself feels, so that Lovell curses those who betrayed Richard
with lies. Richard is so far gone that he raves to himself until brought back to his
senses enough to abuse Lovell for his presumption.
Now … come
Richard’s restoration to is evocative of the same moment in Shakespeare (see R3 5.4.199), and indirectly, Cibber’s
Conscience avaunt, Richard’s himself again(Cibber 5.4).
Sour … delight
Sweet things that delight Richard are sour to his enemies.
Lovell mixes his terms and confuses the difference between good and evil, as a further
sign of chaos. Lovell invokes scripture:
Woe unto them that speak good of evil, and evil of good, which put darkness for light, and light for darkness, that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for sour(GNV, Isaiah 5.20).
great … overthrow
It would need to be a mighty army that could challenge your power.
is not … me
Does not bother me as much as it does to see my former allies defect.
rest yourself content
Be reassured.
power enough
A large enough army.
set … land
Cross the Channel into Britain.
Richmond’s daring to set foot on British soil is an escalation Richard will not brook;
that action is very different from Richmond’s threats from Brittany, which Richard
did not take seriously.
straggling fugitives
Weak outcasts.
buzzard
Worthless fool (OED buzzard, n.1.2.a). Also, the irritating
buzzRichard hears in Lovell’s interjections.
by post … hell
Have you killed.
Yet again, villain
A darkly humorous moment, eliciting a
nervous titterfrom the audience and those on stage, where Richard believes Lovell has dared speak even after he has been threatened with death for any further noise.
left … Stanley
Stanley’s gamble is based on his knowledge that his second son, Sir Edward Stanley,
could still inherit his estate as the earl of Derby.
bastard’s
George Stanley’s.
Richard’s epithet is a non-literal insult: George was born several years after his
parents’ marriage, and so is rightful heir.
haunt … heels
Tenaciously follow him.
I butcher … dead
I will kill George Stanley in revenge for the dead soldiers that will result from
his father’s decision.
his sire
Stanley.
Leave … now
Catesby’s rebuke is surprising, given Richard’s instability and how apt he is to lash
out. This indicates the collective stress that this invasion is causing. Catesby’s
appeal is repeated by Shakespeare (see R3 5.5.73–74).
foe … foes
Don’t talk to me of enemies.
guiltless blood
Innocence: Lovell displays a moral concern by acknowledging George’s youth.
greatly injured him
Is directly responsible for his death.
Bonds … assigned
promise and compact that he swore to.
What though … resign
Even if you have decided on the outcome and have taken his titles.
Lovell argues killing George will make no difference to Stanley.
In doing … justice
Given that Richard has just threatened him, Lovell’s resistance over George is a striking
moment of tension where he commits to what is just and good. As Richard appeals to
his retinue, he finds resistance from Lovell, but also from the Page and Catesby,
who stand in solidarity to refuse their commands.
neglect his word
Broken his promise.
impartial … sword
Has rendered his past neutrality irrelevant by his aggressive actions.
Draw you cuts
Draw straws, make a decision (OED cut n.1.1.a).
The Page and Lovell are compelled to draw cuts over the matter, but Richard’s immediate
command to Catesby suggests that the Page and Lovell do not do as commanded.
we are … one
Not a literal assessment of their army sizes, but a gambling term, to suggest that
Richard’s forces are more likely to prevail. Richard’s odds are a crutch to which
he returns with reassurance that, even without Stanley, he still commands the larger
force.
already … than he
Currently with the king’s power, a proven ruler, unlike Richmond.
Lovell, Catesby
The addition of the Page and other attendants to this scene paints a vivid picture
as Richard excludes all but his two closest attendants in this appeal. The Page is
either actively excluded for his disobedience or is ignored for his unimportance.
join … devoutly
Gather in prayer. A final desperate spiritual gesture from a man resigned to damnation.
divide … amongst you
Richard’s desperation extends to promising riches and fortune, and obliquely evokes
Leir’s division of his kingdom.
dog
An allusion to a nickname for Catesby (as in cat and dog), and Lovell’s family symbol
of a wolf, which earned him the epithet
the dogin Collingbourne’s doggerel poem (see Sc15 Sp4).
join … only
Richard’s bravura reaches its peak, as he challenges double the population of England,
Europe, Christendom, and the entire world, vowing he will not surrender until death.
by death … fame
I will not die for spite, which is a childish reaction: but even were the devil to
claim my crown, I would defeat him, and even if Fortune herself had determined that
I were to fall, then death would ensure my immortality.
Richard’s thoughts jump around in this speech, his mental turmoil betrayed by fragmented
statements and partial thoughts. His indecision about how he will accept his fate
verbalizes the fears in his mind. Despite it all, however, he remains defiant.
set … head
Take vengeance by assuring victory for my opponent at my expense.
lame … mine
My withered arm.
Richard has already accused the Mother Queen and Shore’s wife of conspiring to bewitch
his arm (see Sc10 Sp9).
A late reminder of Richard’s disability, apparent to the audience, but rarely noted
in dialogue.
rake out
Violently chase and confuse (OED rake, v.1.3.a).
A falconry term: Richard plans to mislead or separate Richmond from his army, thus
having the chance to attack him alone. But the term also implies the physical violence
of dragging or harrowing the body, as one would
scratch, scrape, or clawthe ground with the teeth of an iron rake (Thomas, Scalpo), weeding out the enemy.
eat … poison me
This final gruesome image indicates the depth of Richard’s hatred, a berserker-like
depth of fanaticism in victory. These words show Richard’s mental state as he prepares
for and enters the battle, which occurs in next scene.
Sirs … yourselves
Richard’s final, defiant direction calls for loyalty or death: those who do not support
him are better to kill themselves.
resolute
Constant, firm, steadfast (Florio, Costante).
Richard uses this word for the first time in this play since his brother, Edward IV,
used it twice on his deathbed (see Sc1 Sp6). In both cases, the kings refer to unshakeable conviction as a challenge to their
followers.
The battle enters
Shorthand for an extended, choreographed, skilled scene of stage combat. The Queen’s
Men were expert swordsmen, and this stage direction indicates a prolonged entrance
of soldiers to the fray. This would have been a chaotic, dangerous, noisy, thrilling
scene for the audience, who get a privileged view of the battle, perhaps with isolated
face-offsbetween named characters and soldiers. As the battle progressed, characters might be
woundedor
killed,necessitating exits or the creation of human obstacles as bodies fell. As the action climax to the play, this would have been a very busy scene, and might have continued for some minutes. For further insight into the Queen’s Men’s expertise with swords, see Roberts-Smith, 2007.
McMillin and MacLean offer their perspective that this phrase is:
shorthand description for the staging of the fight in which Richard is wounded, but because the scene is wordless, the wounding is not conveyed in the text: the entrance direction’s ‘Richard woundedʼ names what will happen during the wordless battle (129)Further, rather than indicate corruption or text piracy, McMillin and MacLean propose this shorthand as
the way the Queen’s Men worked out their battle scenes, by pantomime and wordlessness(130).
A horse … horse!
The origin of this most recognizable line in this and Shakespeare’s play (see R3 5.6.7). As noted below, Richard refused conveyance for retreat (see Sc19 Sp3). Wilson suggests Hall’s
they brought to hym a swyfte and a light horse to conuey hym away(420) and Peele’s The Battle of Alcazar:
A horse, a horse, villain, a horse / That I make take the riuer straight and flie(306).
fly, … life
The Page deserves credit for doing what he said he’d do: he serves his king, without
giving opinions on which side is legitimate or has more right. There is no indication
that the Page and Richard are alone on stage, although no other characters are named.
If this scene includes enemy soldiers attacking Richard (perhaps repelled by the Page
or Richard himself), these lines would be spoken in a shout, or at least with great
urgency. Clearly the Page has identified an opportunity for Richard to leave the field,
so there cannot be a large collection of extras on stage, but they are still amid
the fray. As Vergil notes (see Anglia Historia), immediately prior to Richard’s death, he had been almost entirely abandoned by
his men, leaving the Page as his last remaining ally.
As Wilson observes (305), this was likely inspired by Hall:
Richard’s followers began to suspect fraud and to smell treason, and not only exhorted but determinately advised him to save himself by flight(see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York).
Look … would fly
Holinshed records:
And when the loss of the battle was imminent and apparent, they brought to him a swift and a light horse, to convey him away. He which was not ignorant of the grudge and ill will that the common people bore toward him, casting away all hope of fortunate success and happy chance to come, answered (as men say) that on that day he would make an end of all battles, or else there finish his life. Such a great audacity and such a stomach reigned in his body. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
watery … roll on
Let the rains continue.
Richard, close to defeat, sees his own fate in the state of the field, mud, gloom
and rain which bogged down the battle, exhausted the troops, and ultimately made decisive
Stanley’s intervention with a fresh battalion.
cheerful sound
The clouds that lour over the battlefield are oppressive, and press Richard into the
waiting earth, but he is happy to die a fighting king, defending his own until the
last.
thy sun
An allusion to the Plantagenet ensign, the rising sun. Richard uses this reference
as a pathetic fallacy of gloom, incorporating the idea of a setting sun and a loss
of life and kingship.
feathers … head
As a garland in victory (OED feather, n.II.8.b), earned on the battlefield but feather or plume worn afterwards on the hat. Many
soldiers would self-adorn with feathers, faking past valor which often earned the
label
fool or poseur.Richard recognizes his folly in pretending he can still win, and explicitly says the birds dare not come near him. For Richard, his best hope is the one he ends with—telling his tale in hell.
Fortune
Richard knows, by his earlier appeal to Fortune, that he must face the coming fall,
now beyond his control (see Sc3 Sp9).
quiet crown
Kingship unthreatened by potential usurpers.
Fates deny
In later Greek and Roman mythology,the Fates were three goddesses (Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos; later Nona, Decuma, and Morta)
supposed to determine the course of human life(OED fate, n.2.b). Unlike Fortune, who controlled good luck, the Fates determined an overall mortal plan.
Richard recognizes his life is no longer in his own hands. As the last time we see
Richard alive on stage, the audience is left with a reflective, cathartic moment of
humanity, showing the bravery and tenacity of a man who had lost touch with these
characteristics as he rose to power. Now, he appears focused on the way in which he
embraces his end.
golden thoughts
Ambitious desires.
my last
My last words, my last moments.
damned souls
Given his actions, Richard is under none of the illusions of Edward IV who thought
himself bound for Heaven (see Sc1 Sp25). Richard knows he himself is damned.
Exit the Page
Q’s singular
Exitoffers little clarity on who is to leave the stage, but without a new entrance for Richard, it is safe to assume that he does not exit, but instead Richmond confronts him as part of the same scene. The Page’s exit alone allows for the climactic battle to commence without Richard requiring an exit. A clamor of noise offstage is sufficient to frighten the Page into abandoning his master and gives Richmond’s forces an entry point to surround Richard. This solves the whereabouts of the Page during this final battle, and while his absence complicates his later account of the battle to Report, it gives a layered comment on the accuracy of the Report, as told by one who was not a direct eyewitness. The Page later describes the sound of trumpet and drum during Richard’s final battle, as Richmond has called for his men to charge.
Enter Richmond … again
Richmond confronts Richard while other skirmishes potentially play out around the
stage between soldiers. As Vergil notes, Richard died
fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies,having been abandoned by his men, so this reflects that moment (see Anglia Historia).
There would have been a great deal of action to accompany this entrance, with Richmond’s
troops fighting with troops loyal to Richard. These nameless troops represented the
last line of defense before reaching Richard, and once he is finally surrounded and
outnumbered, Richmond is afforded the honor of taking the final battle. As discussed
above (see Sc19 Sp1), McMillin and MacLean suggest battle stage directions encompass robust wordless
scenes:
strangely segmented, with wordless battles set apart from moments of speech, as though the battles were thought of as having a text of their own(129). There are many text-based battle scenes, but
the serious battles tend to be wordless(130). The seriousness of the fencing scenes required great concentration to ensure no one was injured, so dialogue is not prioritized.
kills Richard
Richmond as Richard’s killer is romantic, apocryphal, and ahistorical, but appears
here and in Shakespeare.
Vergil reports Richard’s death:
Henry perceived King Richard come upon him, and because all his hope was than in valiancy of arms, he received him with great courage. King Richard, at the first brunt, killed certain, overthrew Henry’s standard, together with William Brandon, the standard bearer, and matched also with John Cheney, a man of much fortitude, far exceeding the common sort, who encountered with him as he came, but the king with great force drove him to the ground, making way with weapon on every side. But yet Henry abode the brunt longer than ever his own soldiers would have wend, who were now almost out of hope of victory, when as lo William Stanley with three thousand men came to the rescue: than truly in a very moment the residue all fled, and king Richard alone was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies. (see Anglia Historia; 224)As noted, tradition suggests the killing blow was laid by Sir Rhys ap Thomas (see Sc15 Sp14).
Exeunt Richmond … body
Richard’s body needs to be removed from the stage to allow the play to move forward,
and a ceremonial progression affords a sense of respect in death for Richmond’s defeated
foe. This moment could be played in multiple ways, depending on how many of Richmond’s
troops are on stage. More may enter to bear him away, or Richmond could even offer
his assistance. Potentially, Richmond dons Richard’s crown and exits the stage, leaving
the body to be cleared by Richmond’s soldiers. Each option is a potentially striking
stage picture.
Report
An allegorical figure who represents the retelling of history and rumor.
An unusual instance of interaction between allegorical and non-allegorical characters
(Wiggins 489).
There is no indication as to how Report would be attired, but Ripa records Rumor as
a man arm’d with a coat of mail of divers colours; throwing of darts every where […] the Darts show flying Reports among the multitude […] the Coat of Mail of different Colours, the diversity of Opinions of the Rabble(66). This is a similar allegorical attiring to the character of Rumor, a figure who always wore a suit of tongues, including his appearance in the prologue of 2H4.
the Page
As he exits prior to Richard’s death, the resourceful Page must have hidden or eluded
Richmond’s soldiers long enough to weather the end of the battle. Unless the actor
had chosen to hide in view of the audience during the end of the battle, a choice
that justifies his information about the fray, much of what he is to say is spurious
or guessed, as he has not necessarily witnessed Richard’s final moments.
certain true report
A good accurate account.
victorious
Concluded.
Report does not know the outcome but knows one side has prevailed. Walsh notes the
belatedness of Report’s arrival as a comment on unreliable non-eyewitness historical
accounts (88).
whate’er thou be’st
Whoever you are, whatever side you are on.
field
Battlefield.
triumphs … conqueror
Celebrates his bold or courageous conquest as appropriate for the successful military
leader.
The Page evokes the Roman triumphs, ceremonial processions to celebrate a successful
military victory, particularly a foreign war. Such an association emphasizes Richmond’s
role as the victorious new king.
duke of Norfolk
Norfolk is not in this play, but was the highest-profile Bosworth victim, as Holinshed
notes:
of the nobility were slain John duke of Norfolk, which was warned by diverse to refrain from the field, in so much that the night before he should set forward toward the king, one wrote this rhyme upon his gate: Jack of Norfolk be not too bold, / For Dickon thy master is bought and sold. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)Norfolk and the famous
Jack of Norfolknote appear in Shakespeare (see R3 5.5.33–34).
Brakenbury
Brakenbury died at Bosworth, and in the battle’s aftermath, he was attainted and his
lands were forfeited.
Lovell
Lovell was
amongst them that ran away […] and who took sanctuary in Saint John’s at Gloucester(see Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland; Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland). Lovell’s allegiance to Richard, whether due to loyalty or fear, made his apprehension a priority, although he managed to evade capture long enough to oppose Richmond again. He fomented rebellion on several occasions after Bosworth He was next seen in support of the pretender Lambert Simnel who initially claimed to be the younger of the two princes who died in the Tower, and then the son of Clarence. Lovell remained an opponent to Henry VII and either died at the Battle of Stoke (1487) or vanished before he could be apprehended. Bacon suggested that he had lived on after Stoke by living in a cave or vault (37), and a skeleton discovered in 1708 secreted at his family manor of Minster Lovell has been suggested to be Lovell. This is unlikely, due to Lovell’s only passing acquaintance with Minster Lovell (Horrox).
besides
As well as.
made … tragedy
Was accessory to Richard’s reign of terror.
He is … beheaded
Catesby’s execution in Leicester so soon after the battle shows time is compacted.
Holinshed reports after Richard died, Catesby
two days after was beheaded at Leicester(see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland).
took part
Fought on the side of.
brief discourse
Holinshed offers a detailed report on the action, which differs markedly from the
Page’s description. See Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland for this account.
fell
Came to pass (OED fall, v.VI.51.a).
The Page’s detailed account offers many clues about how Richard’s death would be staged,
including information on Richmond’s troop numbers, the sound of the charge, and the
presence of horses. As the Page is potentially embellishing his story based on what
little he saw, this lends little credence to the truth behind the historical report.
mounted on horseback
Richard’s horseback appearance in battle was unusual: ordinarily a reigning king was
protected in the rearguard to ensure the figurehead stood. See note at Sc15 Sp19.
fierce … Greeks
The first mythologizing of Richard’s death, whether or not it matches with the events
of the final battle that the audience have witnessed. The Page likens Richard’s valor
to Achilles in the Trojan war, which speaks to the bravery depicted on stage, but
hyperbolically extends his acts. This analogy complicates the reliability of historical
accounts as the Page
spinsRichard’s acts (Walsh 89), or perhaps the Page gives the Yorkist view, just as Richmond (and Shakespeare) will later give the Tudor view.
encounter
Confront, assail (OED encounter, v.1.a).
The first of three variants on this word in twenty lines, which generically depicts
confrontation (see Sc20 Sp6; Sc21 Sp1).
accompanied with
Surrounded by.
displayed … straight
Showed his banner boldly.
Richard is determined to die like a king, and he is described as honorable action
in battle, even though his followers have either deserted or died. Richard’s banner,
borne by Sir Percival Thirlwall, was raised to announce his presence as he charged
Richmond, as noted in the anonymous
The Ballad of Bosworth Field(see Supplementary Texts). The raising of Richard’s colors in his final battle might have been an additional moment of defiance in staging his death.
charge … fife
Traditional martial instruments used to signal an attack, especially a rushing assault
that leaves the enemy no time to think or to re-deploy the battalions.
straight encountered
Clashed head-on.
gan faint
Became tired.
followed honor
Died valiantly.
threw … wounded
Holinshed supports Richard’s bravery:
with which too much hardiness he being overcome, hastily closed his helmet, and entered fiercely into the hard battle, to the intent to obtain that day a quiet reign and regiment; or else to finish there his unquiet life, and unfortunate governance. And so, this miser at the same very point had like chance and fortune, as happeneth to such which in place of right justice and honesty, following their sensual appetite, love, and use to embrace mischief, tyranny, and unthriftiness. Surely these be examples of more vehemency, than man’s tongue can express, to fear and astonish such evil persons, as will not live one hour vacant from doing and exercising cruelty, mischief, or outrageous living. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
ne’er recovered strength
Died where he fell.
master … yield
As Richard had promised, he fought until his death. The word
yieldimplies giving back what he had taken, and perhaps suffering public execution before a hostile mob, humiliating and felt as cowardly. because passive. Richard’s decision to fight to the death is his final (and perhaps only) show of true honor.
Exit … remains.
Q has no exit line for the Page or Report. The stage will soon become crowded with
Richmond’s victorious army, and Report would logically stay to observe in order to
fulfill his reportage. The Page, as a visible member of Richard’s retinue, would slip
out of sight for his own safety.
crown
Legend says Richard wore his crown to battle—a conspicuous target—and after his death
it was found and presented to Richmond. Vergil reports:
which, when Thomas Stanley did see, he set anon King Richard’s crown, which was found among the spoil in the field, upon his head, as though he had been already by commandment of the people proclaimed king after the manner of his ancestors. (see Anglia Historia)The apocryphal detail of Richard’s crown found in a hawthorn bush is a seventeenth century embellishment (Henderson 237–238).
fortune … day
Despite the odds, Richmond’s faction easily carried the day at Bosworth with little
loss of noble life (see Sc21 Sp1).
hot encountering
The heat of close combat.
unity
Richmond’s victory unified the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions and effectively ended
the wars of the roses.
those … lost
Vergil records Richmond’s losses as slight:
Henry lost in that battle scarce a hundred soldiers, amongst whom there was one principal man, William Brandon, who bore earl Henry’s standard(see Anglia Historia; 225). Holinshed names only two noble victims on Richmond’s side:
King Richard set on so sharply at the first brunt, that he overthrew the earl’s standard, and slew Sir William Brandon his standard bearer (which was father to Sir Charles Brandon by king Henry the eighth created duke of Suffolk) and matched hand to hand with Sir John Cheney, a man of great force and strength, which would have resisted him: but the said John was by him manfully overthrown. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
maintain … pay
Support and provide for them (OED maintain, v.I.1.a) with a generous allowance (OED manual, adj.6).
loving father
Stanley.
not the least
Richmond leaves Stanley the final position of honor by design, in reflection of Stanley’s
important intervention but also in reflection of the character’s ancestry with Lord
Strange, Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby (1559–1594), a notable cultural patron
(Manley and MacLean 26).
unlooked-for aid
Unexpected help.
Richmond did not count on Stanley’s help, and as Manley notes it is not clear
whether Stanley acted positively on behalf of Richmond or merely refused to come to Richard’s assistance(170).
enemies
Stanley refers to remaining Yorkists who would emerge in rebellion after Bosworth
(see Epilogue Sp1).
common … consent
Holinshed records Stanley’s acclamation:
When the lord Stanley saw the good will and gladness of the people, he took the crown of king Richard which was found amongst the spoil in the field, and set it on the earl’s head; as though he had been elected king by the voice of the people, as in ancient times past in diverse realms it hath been accustomed: and this was the first sign and token of his good luck and felicity. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)
combat them
Suppress rebellion.
Caesar
Julius Caesar (100–44BCE), Roman Emperor, who conquered Gaul (58–50BCE), and spread
Roman influence into Egypt and throughout Europe.
Oxford hyperbolically compares Richmond’s conquest to the spread of the Roman Empire
yet indelicately forgets Caesar’s death at the hands of former allies.
doubt not
Have no doubt.
fair Fortune
References to Fortune come full-circle, discussed by Shore’s wife and Richard as the
fickle goddess to whom each appealed (see Sc2 Sp1; Sc3 Sp9).
Hector … senators
Oxford suggests Richmond is a giant among men. Hector was the greatest of the Trojan
warriors, who died in combat with the Achilles after the gods’ interference (Homer, Iliad, book 22). Marcus Tullius Cicero, or Tully, was a highly respected Roman orator, lawyer, and
senator, whose philosophical letters (discovered by Petrarch) ignited the Renaissance.
Enter Mother … Elizabeth
This relocated stage direction means that Richmond directly addresses the Mother Queen,
rather than anticipate her entrance.
fortune … day
Victory in the battle.
Lord Marquess Dorset
While it seems unusual the Mother Queen does not know where her son is, Dorset was
supposed to fight at Bosworth, but was delayed. He lived in exile for over two years
in Brittany and participated in Richmond’s 1483 invasion attempt. Dorset almost rejoined
Richard prior to Bosworth, but was prevented from leaving France, and, as noted, was
held as a war debt to France (see Sc21 Sp6). He rejoined his family after Henry VII took power (Hicks).
murdered
One of the fallen in battle.
doth live
Is alive.
driven … tempest
Richmond’s failed invasion of 1483 was ruined by unexpected storms.
ask … men
Charles VIII provided French mercenaries who made up half of Richmond’s force (Skidmore 224). Major records the assistance:
Inasmuch as he had been long a dweller in France, Charles the Eighth granted Richmond an aid of five thousand men (of whom one thousand were Scots)(393). This was crucial for Richmond, as a smaller invading force may have struggled to attract English soldiers. This assistance was clearly strategic in the hopes of gaining the support of a conquering king.
munition
Weaponry, martial supplies (OED munition, n.4.a).
Richard accuses Stanley of providing these supplies earlier: Richmond’s need to ask
them of France suggests Stanley was innocent, or the embargo succeeded (see Sc14 Sp41).
Dorset … pledge
Dorset was held along with John Bourchier, Lord Berners, as assurance for a debt Richmond
owed Charles VIII, but this was financial, not in exchange for mercenaries (Hicks). Here the two events are conflated.
our troubled war
Richmond’s invasion and successful overthrow of Richard. Richmond characterizes this
as troubled because of the length of time it took to complete, after his disastrous
prior attempt in 1483.
shall … again
Exiled for two years, Dorset had all his lost lands and titles returned.
God … guide
Richmond’s piety is validated with victory against the odds and vindicates his sense
of God approving his claim.
keep … effectually
Fulfil our promises exactly.
happy battle’s
Victorious army’s.
make bold … promise
Be so audacious as to ask you to keep an assurance or agreement.
marriage of Elizabeth
As noted, Richmond declared his intention for Elizabeth the previous December, but
as of this moment his proposal has not been accepted by the Mother Queen or Elizabeth
(see Sc14 Sp26).
my due
What I have earned.
in that
Because.
by election
Stanley speaks informally and anachronistically. Richmond has slain the previous king,
so has claimed the throne by conquest and there is no need for an approving council
meeting: no such mechanism was in place at the time. The council in Shakespeare’s
play meets to confirm coronation date, not to confirm right to inherit (see R3 3.4.1). Tradition says Richmond proclaimed his kingship on the battlefield, crowned by
popular acclamation (see Sc21 Sp2). Indeed,
the prominence of ‘electionʼ among Richmond’s claims through marriage, lineage and conquest further legitimizes the Tudor dynasty, but it also stakes a claim for the peerage in the process of determining the future of the English monarchy(Bezio 73).
First … virtuous
Primarily because they see you as pious and good.
foreign broils
Wars with neighboring countries.
With allegiance to both France and Brittany and Richard’s truce with Scotland, Richmond’s
followers hoped for sustained peace. Aside from minor rebellions, Henry VII presided
over peace until a 1497 rebellion in Scotland (see Sc21 Sp2).
England, … Ireland
Oxford’s proclamation encompasses Richmond’s realms and anachronistically conflates
Wales into England, which would not be incorporated until 1542, in the rule of Henry
VIII. He is proclaimed king of France despite assistance offered by the French king,
but this is limited to his rule over the English-controlled territory of Calais. The
English lost their control over areas on the western coast of France, including Bordeaux
and the Dordogne, after the death of Henry V. The English later occupied Boulogne-Sur-Mer
briefly (1544–1550) but Calais was the last English bastion in France. Richmond’s
third title, lord of Ireland, is a twelfth-century title established by King John,
passed to each subsequent king of England until Henry VIII made himself king of Ireland
in 1542.
All
This traditional response encompasses public proclamation and acceptance of the title,
now formally read for public approval at locations around the English and Scottish
kingdoms, including London, York, Windsor, and Edinburgh.
root abuses
Uncover crimes.
commonwealth
Body of citizens, collective group of subjects.
now flows faster
Richard’s wrongs are exacerbated to emphasise the correction Richmond’s rule offers.
Richmond looks to quash the uncertainty that arose after Edward IV’s death (see Sc11 Sp14).
Nile
The annual flooding of the Nile is a powerful natural phenomenon compared to wide-spread
evils Richmond seeks to stamp out.
still … dispose
With the greatest of intentions fulfill my promise to be your servant.
longer … love
Richmond’s vow is to live only as he fulfills his oath, which he accuses Richard of
failing to do.
Elizabeth
This is Elizabeth’s first appearance since sanctuary, which means her marriage has
been discussed entirely without her, or at least has been kept confidential offstage
(see Sc9 SD1).
must
Want to.
crave … resolve
Wish to have an answer on how you have decided.
Richmond’s noun/verb repetition emphasizes the coming resolution of the war.
touching … unto you
Regarding the proposal of marriage I have given you.
aged … age
Elizabeth emphasizes the conventional respect experience has earned her parents. She
defers to her mother but has also proven herself canny and mature in her earlier dealings,
so she is no pawn in these proceedings.
do commit … dispose
Will do whatever she tells me I should.
ay
Ever, always(OED aye, adv.1.1).
The first of three uses of this word emphasizes the optimism of this resolution (see
Epilogue Sp4).
if I live
While I am alive.
more … love
Greater generosity of heart than expected.
now were but
If only.
happy … meeting then
Joyous would this reunion be.
’turn in safe
Return undamaged.
he that … blood
One that takes pleasure in killing.
two messengers
Both messengers stay for the epilogue. Roberts-Smith suggests these messengers are
played by the boys who play the young princes, so the final scene is a family reunion
tableau (2012, 198). The same argument posits these boys played Truth and Poetry, a contention supported
by McMillin and MacLean (107).
with great danger
At considerable personal risk.
enclosed … earth
George associates his imprisonment with a helpless lamb kept alive in a wolf’s den,
expecting death.
even … danger
Fresh from this fear.
come … guest
Approach to offer homage.
George … emotion
George’s repetition indicates his incorporation of the Messengers who have liberated
him, as he emotionally acknowledges the risk they took by delaying his execution.
The Messengers might stand forth to accept the gratitude of both Stanleys, and even
the new king.
post him off
Divert him, distract him.
alleging … rage
The Messengers’ diversionary tactics resemble those attempted by Catesby and Lovell
(see Sc18 Sp16).
battles joined
Armies clashed.
these … away
These men and other friends protected me from harm, freed me from bondage.
The messengers appear to have been Richard’s servants or guards who have defected
to Richmond to bring George home.
Richard—
This short line potentially allows the actor playing Richmond to show his disdain
for speaking Richard’s name, be it a spit or a glare at those around him. Despite
his honor in removing Richard’s body ceremonially from the battlefield, he is still
able to show his distaste for him, which is furthered by his parading of Richard’s
body through Leicester.
will
Promise to see that.
drawn … laid
This public display, called carting, was a pious display of the evil source of England’s troubles, much in the way that
bailiffs would display criminals on their way to be punished. This is also a form
of Roman triumph, an emphasis of the victor’s achievement.
Holinshed writes with shame of the desecration of Richard’s body:
the dead corpse of king Richard was as shamefully carried to the town of Leicester, as he gorgeously (the day before) with pomp and pride departed out of the same town. For his body was naked and despoiled to the skin, and nothing left about him, not so much as a clout to cover his privy members, and was trussed behind a pursuant of arms, one Blanch Senglier, or White boar, like a hog or calf, his head and arms hanging on the one side of the horse, and his legs on the other side, and all besprinkled with mire and blood he was brought to the Greyfriars church within the town, and there lay like a miserable spectacle. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland)Richard’s skeleton was discovered in the remains of the Greyfriars friary in 2012.
collier’s horse
A mean, low-status beast of burden, in stark contrast to the fine charger he rode
into battle.
This choice of steed is intentional, lowering the dead king of England on to an animal
used for carrying coals for a collier, or coal-miner. The collier’s horse literally
had the lowest, blackest job there was in the coal mines.
of others’ … regard
He did not care about other people.
traitor’s due reward
The display of Richard’s corpse was a grim public warning for the price of treason.
abbey … next
An anachronism; the battle itself was waged on August 22nd, 1485, and Richmond does
not propose he wait a year until marriage. Richmond was crowned on October 30, 1485,
his marriage solemnized on 18 January 1486. Elizabeth was crowned queen almost two
years later, in November 1487.
Set forwards
March on.
take … state
Bring peace and reason back to the kingdom.
The Mother … Messengers
This stage direction allows the bulk of the company to clear the space for the four
boys to close the play, and while there is little evidence to support this clearing
of the space, as Walsh observes, the stage would be crowded with between ten and fourteen
actors (100–101). This might result in a
communal moment(Walsh 101), with an isolation of the four epilogue speakers.
gentles
Gentry (ladies and gentlemen) in the audience, in direct address from the stage.
The messenger uses the same address as Truth in the prologue (see Prologue Sp17), which cements the connection in the doubled casting (Walsh 98).
these houses
York and Lancaster.
Solomon
A king of Israel (c.970–931 BCE) so renowned as a wise, fair judge that his name remains
synonymous with wisdom.
The Solomon-like wisdom of Henry VII, as the holy unifier of York and Lancaster, was
a common Tudor epithet. Solomon’s wisdom lay in his piety and strength of prayer (GNV 1 Kings 3.4–5), which associates with Richmond’s triumph. In 1621 Francis Bacon used this image,
calling Henry
this Solomon of England,but in this case, it was because
Solomon was also too heavy upon his people in exactions(211). Here the association is based on Richmond’s wit and wisdom.
government … every way
Rule was fair and honest in all matters.
wondrously increase
Bless with children.
Henry and Elizabeth had eight children, including the future Henry VIII, along with
Margaret and Mary Tudor, both of whom were grandmothers to Mary, queen of Scots and
Lady Jane Grey, claimants to the English throne.
subdue … Blackheath
Richmond survived several uprisings, but this refers to the Cornish rebellion of 1497.
Henry levied taxes for his Scottish wars, and met resistance led by James Tuchet,
7th baron Audley, whose forces were subdued at the battle of Deptford Bridge on 15
June 1497 (Gunn). Baron Audley was executed at Tower Hill for his treason. This is the only uprising
the playwright notes, despite significant incursions by rebels who supported a Yorkist
pretender. Attempts to elevate Lambert Simnel (supposedly son to Clarence, 1487) and
Perkin Warbeck (supposedly the younger prince in the Tower, 1490) were both quashed.
To note these campaigns is to question the king’s legitimacy.
three … years
Richmond ruled from 22 August 1485 until 21 April 1509.
Westminster
Burial site of Henry, who was buried alongside Elizabeth Woodville in the Henry VII
Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey. Six other monarchs, including Elizabeth I, are buried
in the same chapel.
son
Henry VIII, who ruled from April 1509 to January 1547.
fifth … France
Henry invaded France in 1513 as part of a pact with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor,
in the Holy League.
Thérouanne and Tournai
The battle of the Spurs, on 16 August 1513, saw Henry’s force support Maximilian to
surprise a French cavalry battalion outnumbered four to one. This minor diplomatic
victory won Thérouanne and Tournai and was valuable propaganda.
emperor
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.
served … pay
Mercenary arrangement: the emperor offered Henry VIII his service in exchange for
money. Henry VIII paid Maximilian a daily fee for his support (Ives).
as a … him
Maximilian’s participation had little to do with loyalty and more with financial return.
Morlaix
English troops attacked Morlaix in 1522 in retaliation for Breton piracy in Bristol,
and found the port deserted. After English sacked Morlaix, Bretons built the forbidding
Château du Taureau fortification to protect against future attacks.
at a bay
In line.
decreasing age
Advancing years, lessening vitality.
Boulogne
Henry invaded France in July 1545 with 40,000 men in support of Charles V, Holy Roman
Emperor. Henry besieged Montreuil and Boulogne; the latter capitulated on 14 September
1545 and was held by the English for eight years (Ives).
after … home
Following his return to England.
Henry died less than two years after the attack on Boulogne, in January 1547.
thirty-eight … months
From April 1509 to January 1547, or thirty-seven years, nine months and some odd days.
Windsor
Burial site of Henry VIII, in St. George’s Chapel in Windsor Castle, with his third
wife, Jane Seymour, who died giving birth to the future Edward VI.
three famous sprigs
Three of Henry’s children rose to the throne: Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I.
Edward VI
Crowned in February 1547, three weeks after Henry’s death. Only nine years of age,
he ruled under the protectorship of his great uncle, duke of Somerset (Hoak).
he did … undone
A famously pious king, the young Edward VI continued his father’s active turn from
Rome.
given … book
Heavily inclined to reading the bible.
brought … service
Oversaw extended reforms of the Church of England, including the 1549 introduction
of the Book of Common Prayer, under the influence of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. This
reform, essentially standardizing language, was used in services across England, and
saw responsive armed rebellions.
six … months
From February 1547 to July 1553.
Edward was buried in the Henry VII Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey.
Next after him
This chronology omits Lady Jane Grey, whom Edward VI named heir in reaction to his
sister Mary’s Catholicism. Jane was proclaimed queen, but within nine days her claim
was overridden by her cousin, Mary I. As she was not actually crowned, and reference
would recall Edward’s attempts to disinherit his sisters, there is little wonder this
detail was omitted.
Mary
Queen Mary was crowned first queen regnant of England in October 1553. Mary’s efforts
in reversing progress in advancing Protestantism included the burning of dissenters
and left her the posthumous sobriquet
Bloody Mary(Weikel). Aside from the omission of Jane, this is perhaps the most noteworthy inclusion, because, as Walsh notes:
given that promoting the Protestant Elizabethan order was one of the putative reasons for which the Queen’s Men were formed, it is curious that Mary, in this post-Acts and Monuments, and probably post-Armada, play, is mentioned with no virulence—this despite her ‘bloodyʼ reputation with Protestants and her marriage to the King of Spain. (99)
married Philip
Mary’s marriage to the Spanish Philip was unpopular and led to the belief that England
would lose footing in Europe if seen as dependent on Spain. The marriage was ultimately
fruitless, spoiling Mary’s hopes of passing the throne past her half-sister, Elizabeth
(Weikel).
five … months
From October 1553 to November 1558. Despite her desire to be buried alongside her
father in Windsor, Mary was interred at Westminster Abbey in her grandfather’s chapel,
and later shared a tomb with her half-sister, Elizabeth I.
Mother Queen
The Mother Queen speaks the remaining lines, praises to her character’s granddaughter,
Elizabeth I. Griffin notes:
of these final lines, the basic purport is flattery; but in terms of temporal experience, these lines serve to bring the history down to the present moment, with its triumphs and its fears. […] The True Tragedy profits in a special way from the theatre practice of the actors’ calling for a prayer for the health of the monarch; intentionally or not, the prayer then forms the requisite reinforcement of the link to the present. (90)
mirror in
Exemplar of (OED mirror, v.1.a).
Note contrast to mirror imagery Shore’s wife uses (see Sc2 Sp1).
her country … defended
After the upheaval of Mary’s reign, Elizabeth presided over a remarkable period of
growth and calm, and solidified Protestantism in England. Elizabeth survived numerous
assassination attempts and reigned during the failed Spanish Armada in 1588.
for ay
Forever.
The wish for Elizabeth to live forever is described by Bezio as
either wishful thinking or pandering so transparent that it cannot help but draw focus(74).
happy … isles
Happy be England above the rest of Europe.
proud Antichrist
Chief enemy or
opponent of Christ(OED Antichrist, n.1.a); the Pope or Papal power.
Along with a generic anti-Catholic statement, this incorporates the Spanish Armada,
defeated in 1588.
hath … means
Is the reason why.
hairy
Thrommed, rough, or hearie,(Thomas, Irto); rugged (Florio, Pillóso), both refer to thrummed cloth, densely woven with
a nap or shaggy surface,and used for various items including stockings, long hose, rugs, and hats (OED thrummed, adj.1.1.a) presumably for its weatherproof properties.
This unusual word-choice strikes Urban as
an absurdity, arising from some gross misprint. We think it not improbably that the original line was intended to stand as follows, ‘Then England kneele in praier upon thy kneeʼ(365). Alternately, Mott assumes only literal kneeling in deference to Elizabeth, with little mind given to
hair(66). McMillin and MacLean describe this phrase as
astonishingand
foolish(136, 137), but their preference is to dismiss
hairyas a weak anomaly rather than search for a compositor’s error. In fact, it was an accepted word in clothmaking circles since at least 1535 (OED hairy, adj.2.b).
The Turk
The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, also called
the Great Turk,who sent Elizabeth many gifts through his ambassadors; she sent him an elaborate organ with extra sounds like chimes of birdsong. See John Mole, The Sultan’s Organ (2012), containing the diary of Thomas Dallam who accompanied this instrument in its voyage from London to Constantinople in 1599, and stayed about a year there teaching members of the court how to play it. Mott notes friendly diplomatic relations between England and Turkey in the years after the Armada, and credits Harborne, English ambassador in Constantinople, as responsible for spreading Elizabeth’s fame. Subsequent Turkish emissaries to England were warm and complimentary (67–68).
babies in Jewry
Although Jews were expelled from England in the 13th century, by Elizabeth’s day they
were allowed to return as merchants of various kinds, musicians, and other specialized
workers, like the Queen’s own physician, provided they kept their religion secret,
and publicly practiced Christianity. The hardship of such a life for Jews is clear
in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice and Marlowe’s The Jew of Malta.
rumored … fame
Talked about far and wide.
never … hand
An oath of peace.
Mott notes June 1580 correspondence in which Turkey’s
Imperial Musselmanlike Highness,Zuldan Murad Chan, writes:
We have contracted an inviolable amity, peace and league with Elizabeth(68). In the following years, this relationship was further burnished after the defeat of the Spanish Armada: the Turk saw that event as a catalyst for opening up the Mediterranean for trade from the east.
tell the care
Describe the troubles.
peace proclaimed
The notion of peace is the predominant theme in this speech, both domestically and
internationally. Mott observes that
conflict between the peace party and the war party at Elizabeth’s court is well known, and also the Queen’s usual desire to avoid costly foreign complications. At the close of the year 1589 she was especially so disposed(69) after a series of costly international mishaps, including Sir Francis Drake’s disastrous privateering raid on Portugal, and the ill-advised support of the earl of Essex.
Geneva, … Flanders
The English invested money, men, and intelligence in the Netherlands, and sent troops
to aid the Dutch rebels as they rose up against their Spanish king, Philip II. The
English also helped to aid in other fights against their Catholic enemies, including
aiding Henry of Navarre against Philip’s French allies. By 1602, there were up to
eight thousand English troops fighting in the Netherlands.
Elizabeth’s help to the war-oppressed was too frequent to isolate to a specific incident
in Flanders or Geneva, which received Elizabeth’s aid for over twenty years. As to
France,
Any such recognition of English help must have been after the death of Henry III, August 2, 1589. To Henry of Navarre, who thereupon became king, Elizabeth sent money and supplies(Mott 70).
set down
Written to thank her for.
her life … away
She dies.
Your hope … depend
A conventional line of praise for the queen to end the play on a happy note.
Prosopography
Abby Flight
Remediator and encoder, 2024–present. Abby Flight completed her BA in English at the
University of Victoria in 2024, and is now an MA student focusing on Medieval and
Early Modern Studies.
Andrew Griffin
Andrew Griffin is an associate professor in the department of English and an affiliate
professor in the department of Theater and Dance at the University of California,
Santa Barbara. He is general editor (text) of Queen’s Men Editions. He studies early
modern drama and early modern historiography while serving as the lead editor at the
EMC Imprint. He has co-edited with Helen Ostovich and Holger Schott Syme Locating the Queen’s Men (2009) and has co-edited The Making of a Broadside Ballad (2016) with Patricia Fumerton and Carl Stahmer. His monograph, Untimely Deaths in Renaissance Drama: Biography, History, Catastrophe, was published with the University of Toronto Press in 2019. He is editor of the
anonymous The Chronicle History of King Leir (Queen’s Men Editions, 2011). He can be contacted at griffin@english.ucsb.edu.
Anonymous
Dimitry Senyshyn
Dimitry Senyshyn (Clyomon and Clamydes, text) has current research focusing on Shakespeare’s tragicomic romances and their
relation to a native tradition of popular romance. He has co-edited an old-spelling
edition of The True Tragedie of Richard the Third for QME with Jennifer Robert-Smith. He contributed to the preparation of the REED Inns of Court volume, and he has published in Theatre Research in Canada, Early Theatre, and the Encyclopedia of the Bible and its Reception. He can be contacted at dimitry.senyshyn@gmail.com.
Helen Ostovich
Helen Ostovich, professor emerita of English at McMaster University, is the founder
and general editor of Queen’s Men Editions. She is a general editor of The Revels Plays (Manchester University Press); Series
Editor of Studies in Performance and Early Modern Drama (Ashgate, now Routledge),
and series co-editor of Late Tudor and Stuart Drama (MIP); play-editor of several
works by Ben Jonson, in Four Comedies: Ben Jonson (1997); Every Man Out of his Humour (Revels 2001); and The Magnetic Lady (Cambridge 2012). She has also edited the Norton Shakespeare 3 The Merry Wives of Windsor Q1602 and F1623 (2015); The Late Lancashire Witches and A Jovial Crew for Richard Brome Online, revised for a 4-volume set from OUP 2021; The Ball, for the Oxford Complete Works of James Shirley (2021); The Merry Wives of Windsor for Internet Shakespeare Editions, and The Dutch Courtesan (with Erin Julian) for the Complete Works of John Marston, OUP 2022. She has published
many articles and book chapters on Jonson, Shakespeare, and others, and several book
collections, most recently Magical Transformations of the Early Modern English Stage with Lisa Hopkins (2014), and the equivalent to book website, Performance as Research in Early English Theatre Studies: The Three Ladies of London in Context containing scripts, glossary, almost fifty conference papers edited and updated to
essays; video; link to Queen’s Mens Ediitons and YouTube: http://threeladiesoflondon.mcmaster.ca/contexts/index.htm, 2015. Recently, she was guest editor of Strangers and Aliens in London ca 1605,
Special Issue on Marston, Early Theatre 23.1 (June 2020). She can be contacted at ostovich@mcmaster.ca.
Janelle Jenstad
Janelle Jenstad is a Professor of English at the University of Victoria, Director
of The Map of Early Modern London, and Director of Linked Early Modern Drama Online. With Jennifer Roberts-Smith and Mark Beatrice Kaethler, she co-edited Shakespeare’s Language in Digital Media: Old Words, New Tools (Routledge). She has edited John Stow’s A Survey of London (1598 text) for MoEML and is currently editing The Merchant of Venice (with Stephen Wittek) and Heywood’s 2 If You Know Not Me You Know Nobody for DRE. Her articles have appeared in Digital Humanities Quarterly, Elizabethan Theatre, Early Modern Literary Studies, Shakespeare Bulletin, Renaissance and Reformation, and The Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies. She contributed chapters to Approaches to Teaching Othello (MLA); Teaching Early Modern Literature from the Archives (MLA); Institutional Culture in Early Modern England (Brill); Shakespeare, Language, and the Stage (Arden); Performing Maternity in Early Modern England (Ashgate); New Directions in the Geohumanities (Routledge); Early Modern Studies and the Digital Turn (Iter); Placing Names: Enriching and Integrating Gazetteers (Indiana); Making Things and Drawing Boundaries (Minnesota); Rethinking Shakespeare Source Study: Audiences, Authors, and Digital Technologies (Routledge); and Civic Performance: Pageantry and Entertainments in Early Modern London (Routledge). For more details, see janellejenstad.com.
Jennifer Parr
Jennifer Parr holds a Masters degree in European and Renaissance Drama from the University
of Warwick. She is an independent scholar and professional director and dramaturge
based in Toronto. As an undergraduate at the University of Toronto she became involved
as an actor with the P.L.S. Medieval and Renaissance Players’ productions of the Medieval
Mystery Cycles returning later to direct an all female company in the York Cycle Fall
of the Angels for the international full cycle production in 1998. Her recent productions
as director and dramaturge include an all female Julius Caesar and an experimental all female adaptation of Richard III: RIchard 3, Queens 4. Her ongoing research into the historical Richard III and the various theatrical
interpretations led to her joining the company of TTR3 as an observer and historical
resource for the cast. She also writes a monthly column on music theatre and dance
for The WholeNote magazine.
Jennifer Roberts-Smith
Jennifer Roberts-Smith is an associate professor of theatre and performance at the
University of Waterloo. Her interdisciplinary work in early modern performance editing
combines textual scholarship, performance as research, archival theatre history, and
design in the development of live and virtual renderings of early modern performance
texts, venues, and practices. With Janelle Jenstad and Mark Beatrice Kaethler, she
is co-editor of Shakespeare’s Language in Digital Media: Old Words New Tools (2018). Her most recent work has focused on methods for design research that deepen
interdisciplinary understanding and take a relational approach. She is currently managing
director of the qCollaborative (the critical feminist design research lab housed in the University of Waterloo’s Games Institute, and leads the SSHRC-funded Theatre for Relationality and Design for Peace projects.
She is also creative director and virtual reality development cluster lead for the
Digital Oral Histories for Reconciliation (DOHR) project. She can be contacted at
jennifer.roberts-smith@uwaterloo.ca.
Joey Takeda
Joey Takeda is LEMDO’s Consulting Programmer and Designer, a role he assumed in 2020
after three years as the Lead Developer on LEMDO.
Kate LeBere
Project Manager, 2020–2021. Assistant Project Manager, 2019–2020. Textual Remediator
and Encoder, 2019–2021. Kate LeBere completed her BA (Hons.) in History and English
at the University of Victoria in 2020. During her degree she published papers in The Corvette (2018), The Albatross (2019), and PLVS VLTRA (2020) and presented at the English Undergraduate Conference (2019), Qualicum History
Conference (2020), and the Digital Humanities Summer Institute’s Project Management
in the Humanities Conference (2021). While her primary research focus was sixteenth
and seventeenth century England, she completed her honours thesis on Soviet ballet
during the Russian Cultural Revolution. She is currently a student at the University
of British Columbia’s iSchool, working on her masters in library and information science.
Mahayla Galliford
Project Manager, 2025-present; Assistant Project Manager, 2024-2025; Research Assistant,
2021-present. Mahayla Galliford (she/her) graduated from the University of Victoria
with a BA (honours with distinction) in 2024, and an MA English in 2026. Mahayla’s
undergraduate research explored early modern stage directions and civic water pageantry.
Her SSHRC-funded MA thesis project focuses on transcribing, editing, and encoding
early modern girls’ manuscripts, specifically Lady Rachel Fane’s May Masque in collaboration with LEMDO.
Martin Holmes
Martin Holmes has worked as a developer in the UVic’s Humanities Computing and Media
Centre for over two decades, and has been involved with dozens of Digital Humanities
projects. He has served on the TEI Technical Council and as Managing Editor of the
Journal of the TEI. He took over from Joey Takeda as lead developer on LEMDO in 2020.
He is a collaborator on the SSHRC Partnership Grant led by Janelle Jenstad.
Navarra Houldin
Training and Documentation Lead 2025–present. LEMDO project manager 2022–2025. Textual
remediator 2021–present. Navarra Houldin (they/them) completed their BA with a major
in history and minor in Spanish at the University of Victoria in 2022. Their primary
research was on gender and sexuality in early modern Europe and Latin America. They
are continuing their education through an MA program in Gender and Social Justice
Studies at the University of Alberta where they will specialize in Digital Humanities.
Nicole Vatcher
Technical Documentation Writer, 2020–2022. Nicole Vatcher completed her BA (Hons.)
in English at the University of Victoria in 2021. Her primary research focus was women’s
writing in the modernist period.
Peter Cockett
Peter Cockett is an associate professor in the iArts (Integrated Arts) program at
McMaster University. He is the co-editor, with Melinda Gough, of Engendering the Stage in the Age of Shakespeare and Beyond (University of Toronto Press, 2025) which publishes the findings of their 2018 Performance
as Research (PaR) workshop at the Stratford Festival Lab. He is the general editor
(performance), and technical co-ordinating editor of Queen’s Men Editions. His PaR directing credits include King Leir, The Famous Victories of Henry V, and Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (2006), Clyomon and Clamydes (2010), and Three Ladies of London (2015) for the Shakespeare and the Queen’s Men project (SQM). The process behind
the 2006 productions is documented in depth on the project website Performing the Queen’s Men. For the PLS, the University of Toronto’s Medieval and Renaissance Players, he has
directed the Digby Mary Magdalene (2003) and the double bill of George Peele’s The Old Wives Tale and the Chester Antichrist (2004). He also directed An Experiment in Elizabethan Comedy (2005) for the SQM project and Inside Out: The Persistence of Allegory (2008) in collaboration with Alan Dessen. Peter is a professional actor and director
with numerous stage and screen credits. He can be contacted at cockett@mcmaster.ca.
Samuel Seaberg
Samuel Seaberg, a University of Victoria English undergrad, enjoys riding his bike.
During the summer of 2025, he began working with LEMDO as a recipient of the Valerie
Kuehne Undergraduate Research Award (VKURA). Unfortunately, due to his summer being
spent primarily in working to establish an edition of Thomas Heywood’s If You Know Not Me, You Know Nobody, Part 2 and consequently working out how to represent multi-text works in a digital space,
his bike has suffered severely of sheltered seclusion from the sun. Note: Samuel now
works for LEMDO as the Assistant Project Manager, much to his bike’s chagrin.
Toby Malone
Toby Malone is an Australian/Canadian academic, dramaturg, and librarian. He is a
graduate of the University of Toronto (PhD, 2009) and the University of Western Australia
(BA Hons, 2001), and the University of Western Ontario (MLIS, 2023). He has worked
as a theatre artist across the world, with companies including the Stratford Festival,
Canadian Stage, Soulpepper, Driftwood Theatre Group, the Shaw Festival, Poorboy Theatre
Scotland, Pittsburgh Public Theatre, Arizona Theatre Company, CBC, BT/A, and Kill
Shakespeare Entertainment. He has published in Shakespeare Survey, Literature/Film Quarterly, Canadian Theatre Review, Borrowers and Lenders, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature, appears in published collections with Routledge, Cambridge, and Oxford. Publications
include two monographs: dapting War Horse (Palgrave McMillan) and Cutting Plays for Performance: A Practical and Accessible Guide (Routledge), and is currently co-writing an updated version of Shakespeare in Performance: Romeo and Juliet with Jill L. Levenson for Manchester UP. Toby has previously taught at the University
of Waterloo and the State University of New York at Oswego, is currently Research
Impact Librarian at Toronto Metropolitan University.
Tracey El Hajj
Junior Programmer 2019–2020. Research Associate 2020–2021. Tracey received her PhD
from the Department of English at the University of Victoria in the field of Science
and Technology Studies. Her research focuses on the algorhythmics of networked communications. She was a 2019–2020 President’s Fellow in Research-Enriched
Teaching at UVic, where she taught an advanced course on
Artificial Intelligence and Everyday Life.Tracey was also a member of the Map of Early Modern London team, between 2018 and 2021. Between 2020 and 2021, she was a fellow in residence at the Praxis Studio for Comparative Media Studies, where she investigated the relationships between artificial intelligence, creativity, health, and justice. As of July 2021, Tracey has moved into the alt-ac world for a term position, while also teaching in the English Department at the University of Victoria.
Bibliography
Bacon, Francis. History of the Reign of King Henry VII. Ed. Joseph Rawson Lumby. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1885.
Baldwin, William, George Ferrers, and Thomas Chaloner. A myrrour for magistrates. London: Edward Whitchurch, 1563. STC 1248. ESTC S100551.
Baret, John. An Alveary or Triple Dictionary, in English, Latin, and French. London: Henry Denham, 1574. STC 1410. LEME 127.
Bezio, Kristin M.S.
Staging Power in Tudor and Stuart English History Plays: History, Political Thought,
and the Redefinition of Sovereignty. Ashgate, 2015.
Boswell, James the Younger, ed. The True Tragedy of Richard the Third. The Plays and Poems of William Shakspeare: with the Corrections and Illustrations
of Various Commentators: Comprehending a Life of the Poet, and Enlarged History of
the Stage, by the Late Edmond Malone, with a New Glossarial Index. Vol. 19. London: F.C. and J. Rivington, 1821. 251–299.
Breverton, Terry. Henry VII: The Maligned Tudor King. Amberley Press, 2016.
Bullen, Arthur Henry. The Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 13. London: Oxford University Press, 1885.
Bullough, Geoffrey, ed. Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare. Volume III: Earlier English History
Plays: Henry VI, Richard III, Richard II. Routledge and Kegan Paul; Columbia University Press, 1960.
Churchill, George B.
Richard the Third up to Shakespeare. Mayer and Muller, 1900.
Cibber, Colley. The Tragical History of King Richard the Third. The Plays of Colley Cibber. Ed. Timothy J. Viator and William J. Burling. Vol. 1. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2001.
Connor, Francis X., ed. The Second Part of Henry the Fourth. By William Shakespeare. The New Oxford Shakespeare. Ed. Gary Taylor, John Jowett, Terri Bourus, and Gabriel Egan. Oxford University Press, 2016. 1359–1436. WSB aaag2304.
Cotgrave, Randle. A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues. London: Adam Islip, 1611. STC 5830. ESTC S107262. LEME 298.
Cressy, David. Birth, Marriage and Death: Ritual, Religion, and the Life-Cycle in Tudor and Stuart
England. Oxford University Press, 1997.
Davies, C.S.L.
Stafford, Henry, second duke of Buckingham (1455–1483), magnate and rebel.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2011–09–22. DOI: 10.1093/ref:odnb/26204.
Ellis, Sir Henry. Original Letters, Illustrative of English
History: Including Numerous Royal Letters: from
Autographs in the British Museum, and One Or Two
Other Collections.
London: R.
Bentley, 1846.
Ellis, Steven G.
Percy, Henry, fourth earl of Northumberland (c. 1449–1489), magnate.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2006–05–23. DOI: 10.1093/ref:odnb/21935.
Field, Barron, ed. The True Tragedy of Richard the Third: To which is Appended the Latin Play of Richardus
Tertius. London: Shakespeare Society, 1844.
Fleischer, Martha Hester. The Iconography of the English History Play. Institut fur Englische Sprache und Literatur, Universitat Salzburg, 1974.
Foard, Glenn, and Anne Curry. Bosworth 1485: A Battlefield Rediscovered. Oxbow, 2013.
Gairdner, James, ed. The Historical Collections of a Citizen of London in the Fifteenth Century. London: Camden Society, 1876.
Garbett, Samuel. The History of Wem and the Following Townships. G. Franklin, 1818.
Glaser, Joseph, ed. Middle English Poetry in Modern Verse. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2007.
Greg, W.W.
Introduction.The True Tragedy of Richard the Third 1594: The Malone Society Reprints. Oxford University Press, 1929. v-xii.
Greg, W.W.
The Editorial Problem in Shakespeare: A Survey of the Foundations of the Text. Clarendon Press, 1955.
Griffin, Benjamin. Playing the Past: Approaches to English
Historical Drama, 1385–1600.
Woodbridge, UK and
Rochester, NY: D.S.
Brewer, 2001.
Griffith, Ralph. Sir Rhys ap Thomas and his family: a study
in the Wars of the Roses and early Tudor
politics. Cardiff:
University of Wales Press,
1993.
Griffiths, R.A.
Henry VI (1421–1471), King of England and Lord of Ireland, and Duke of Aquitaine.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2015–05–28. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/12953.
Griffiths, R.A.
Rhys, Sir, ap Thomas (1448/9–1525), soldier and landowner.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2008–01–03. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/23467.
Grummitt, David. The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558. London: Boydell Press, 2008.
Gunn, S.J.
Henry VII (1457–1509), king of England and lord of Ireland.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2008–01–03. doi 10.1093/ref:odnb/12954.
Hall, Edward. The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre
Families of Lancastre and Yorke.
London: J.
Johnson, 1809.
Henderson, Virginia K.
Retrieving theTraditions and Transformations in Late Medieval England. Ed. Douglas Biggs. Leiden: Brill, 2002. 237–260.Crown in the Hawthorn Bush: The Origins of The Badges of Henry VII.
Henning, Standish.
Branding Harlots on the Brow.Shakespeare Quarterly 51.1 (Spring 2000): 86–89.
Heywood, Thomas. The First and Second partes of King Edward the Fourth. Containing His mery pastime
with the Tanner of Tamwoorth, as also his loue to fayre Mistresse Shoare, her great
promotion, fall and misery, and lastly the lamentable death of both her and her husband.
Likewise the besiedging of London, by the bastarde Falconbridge, and the valiant defence
of the same by the Lord Maior and the Cittizens. London: John Oxonbridge, 1599. STC 13341. DEEP 5048. ESTC S92964.
Hicks, Michael.
George, duke of Clarence (1449–1478), prince.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2004–09–23. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/10542.
Hicks, Michael.
Woodville [Wydeville], Anthony, second Earl Rivers (c. 1440–1483), magnate.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2011–09–22. doi 10.1093/ref:odnb/29937.
Hoak, Dale.
Edward VI (1537–1553), king of England and Ireland.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2014–05–29. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/8522.
Holinshed, Raphael. The Third Volume of Chronicles, beginning
at William the Norman, Commonly Called the
Conqueror; and Descending by Degrees of Years to all
the Kings and Queens of England in their Orderly
Succession. Vol. 3.
London: J.
Johnson, 1808.
Hollyband, Claude. A Dictionary French and English. London: Thomas Woodcock, 1593. STC 6737. LEME 205.
Homer. Iliad. 2 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1924. DOI 10.4159/DLCL.homer-iliad.1924.
Horrox, Rosemary.
Brackenbury, Sir Robert (d. 1485), knight.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2008–01–03. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/3162.
Horrox, Rosemary.
Catesby, William (b. in or before 1446, d. 1485), royal councillor and speaker of the House of Commons.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2010–09–23. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/4884.
Horrox, Rosemary.
Edward IV (1442–1483), king of England and lord of Ireland.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2011–09–22. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/8520.
Horrox, Rosemary.
Edward V (1470–1483), king of England and lord of Ireland.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2013–10–03. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/8521.
Horrox, Rosemary.
Lovell, Francis, Viscount Lovell (b. c. 1457, d. in or after 1488), administrator and rebel.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2004–09–23. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/17058.
Horrox, Rosemary.
Richard III (1452–1485), king of England and lord of Ireland.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2013–05–30. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/23500.
Howlet, Richard. Abecedarium Anglico-latinum.
London: printed by S. Mierdman
for John Day, 1552. STC
13940. LEME 75.
Irish, Bradley.
Vengeance, Variously: Revenge Before Kyd in Early Elizabethan Drama.Early Theatre 12.2 (2009): 117–134.
Ives, E.W.
Henry VIII (1491–1547), king of England and Ireland.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2009–05–21. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/12955.
Johnson, Gerald D.
William Barley,The Library. 11th series, 1 (March 1989): 10–46.Publisher and Seller of Bookes.
Jones, Michael K., and Malcolm G. Underwood.
Beaufort, Margaret [known as Lady Margaret Beaufort], countess of Richmond and Derby (1443–1509), royal matriarch.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2004–09–23. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/1863.
Jowett, John, ed. King Lear and his Three Daughters. By William Shakespeare. The New Oxford Shakespeare. Ed. Gary Taylor, John Jowett, Terri Bourus, and Gabriel Egan. Oxford University Press, 2016. 2347–2433. WSB aaag2304.
Jowett, John, ed. The Tragedy of Richard the Third. By William Shakespeare. The New Oxford Shakespeare. Ed. Gary Taylor, John Jowett, Terri Bourus, and Gabriel Egan. Oxford University Press, 2016. 543–638. WSB aaag2304.
Kelly, James. A complete collection of Scottish Proverbs, explained and made intelligible to the
English reader. London: Rodwell & Martin, 1818.
Lily, William. A Short Introduction of Grammar. London, 1549. STC 15611. ESTC S104797; rpt. Reyner Wolfe, 1567. STC 15614.2. LEME 110.
Loughnane, Rory, ed. The Life of Henry the Fifth. By William Shakespeare. The New Oxford Shakespeare. Ed. Gary Taylor, John Jowett, Terri Bourus, and Gabriel Egan. Oxford University Press, 2016. 1529–1606. WSB aaag2304.
Loughnane, Rory, ed. The Second Part of Henry the Sixth; or, The First Part of the Contention. By William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe. The New Oxford Shakespeare. Ed. Gary Taylor, John Jowett, Terri Bourus, and Gabriel Egan. Oxford University Press, 2016. 251–330. WSB aaag2304.
Major, John. Historia Majoris Britanniæ, tam Angliæ quam Scotiæ, per Joannem Majorem, nomine quidem
Scotum, professione autem Theologum, é veterum monumentis concinnata. Paris, 1521. Published as A History of Greater Britain as well England as Scotland. Trans. Archibald Constable. Edinburgh: University Press, 1892.
Mancini, Dominic. The Usurpation of Richard the Third. Trans. C.A.J. Armstrong. Sutton Publishing, 1984.
Manley, Lawrence, and Sally-Beth MacLean. Lord Strange’s Men and their Plays. Yale University Press, 2014. WSB aaad207.
Manley, Lawrence.
In Great Men’s Houses: Playing, Patronage, and the Performance of Tudor History.Rethinking Historicism from Shakespeare to Milton. Ed. Baynes Coiro, Ann Fulton, and Thomas Fulton. Cambridge University Press, 2012. 159–178.
McMillin, Scott, and Sally-Beth MacLean. The Queen’s Men and Their Plays. Cambridge University Press, 1998. WSB aw359.
Mole, John. The Sultan’s Organ: London to Constantinople in 1559 and Adventures on the Way. Fortune Publishing Group, 2012.
More, Thomas. The History of King Richard the Third. Ed. Gerard B. Wegemer and Travis Curtright. http://medieval.ucdavis.edu/YORK.DURHAM/Richard.III.html.
Mott, Lewis F.
Foreign Politics in an Old Play.Modern Philology 19.1 (1921): 65–71.
OED: The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 1989.
OED: The Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2022.
Pugh, T.B.
Grey, Thomas, first marquess of Dorset (c. 1455–1501), courtier.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2004–09–23. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/11560.
Rapin, Paul de. Acta Regia or, An account of the treaties, letters and instruments between the monarchs
of England and foreign powers. London: J. Darby, 1727.
Ribner, Irving. The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957; rpt. London: Routledge, 2014.
Riley, Henry T., trans. and ed.
Continuation of the History of Crowland.Ingulph’s Chronicle of the Abbey of Crowland. London: George Bell and Sons, 1908.
Ripa, Cæsare. Iconologia: or Moral Emblems. London: Benj. Motte, 1709.
Roberts-Smith, Jennifer.
Early Theatre 15.2 (2012): 192–205.What makes thou upon a stage?: Child Actors, Royalist Publicity, and the Space of the Nation in the Queen’s Men’s True Tragedy of Richard the Third.
Ross, Charles. Richard III. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.
Rowan, D.F.
Shore’s Wife.Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900 6.3 (Summer 1966): 447–464.
Royce, Jean de. Journal de Jean de Roye: connu sous le nom de Chronique scandaleuse, 1460-1483. Paris: 1483.
Seneca. Oedipus. Loed Classical
Library 78. Harvard
University Press,
2018.
Shakespeare, William. An excellent conceited tragedie of Romeo
and Juliet. London:
John Danter and
Edward
Allde
, 1597. STC
22322. ESTC S111176.
Skidmore, Chris. Bosworth: The Birth of the Tudors. Phoenix/Orion, 2013.
The Bible. The Geneva Bible. London, 1599. STC 2173.
Thomas, Thomas. Dictionarium Linguae Latinae et Anglicanae. Printed by Thomae Thomasii for Richardum Boyle. Cambridge, 1587. STC 24008. LEME 179.
Thomson, Leslie.
Beds on the Early Modern Stage.Early Theatre 19.2 (2017): 31–58.
Tilley, Morris P.
A Dictionary of the Proverbs in England in the Sixeenth and Seventeenth Centuries. University of Michigan Press, 1950; rpt. 1966.
Tucker, P.
Shaw [Shaa], Sir Edmund (d. 1488), goldsmith and mayor of London.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2008–01–03. doi 10.1093/ref:odnb/25248.
Ullyot, Michael.
Seneca and the Early Elizabethan History Play.English Historical Drama, 1500–1660: Forms Outside the Canon. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. 98–124.
Urban, Sylvanus. The Gentleman’s Magazine. Vol. 23. London, 1845.
Vergil, Polydore. Anglica Historia, Book 26. Ed. Dana F. Sutton. http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/polverg/26eng.html.
Walsh, Brian. Shakespeare, the Queen’s Men, and the Elizabethan
Performance of History.
Cambridge
University Press, 2009. WSB
aay460.
Ward, Allyna E.
Fortune Laughs and Proudly Hovers: Fortune and Providence in the Tudor Tradition.The Yearbook of English Studies 39.1/2 (2009): 39–57.
Weikel, Ann.
Mary I (1516–1558), queen of England and Ireland.Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press, 2008–01–03. DOI 10.1093/ref:odnb/18245.
Wiggins, Martin, and
Catherine Richardson, eds. British Drama 1533–1642: A
Catalogue. 2 vols. Cambridge
University Press,
2012.
Wilson, J. Dover.
Shakespeare’s Richard III and The True Tragedy of Richard the Third, 1594.Shakespeare Quarterly 3.4 (1952): 299–306.
Łodej, Sylwester.
The demise of gog and cock and their phraseologies in dramatic discourse: A study into historical pragmatics of tabooistic distortions.English historical linguistics 2010: selected papers from the sixteenth International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 16), Pécs, 23-27 August 2010. Ed. Irén Hegedűs and Alexandra Fodor. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2012.
Orgography
LEMDO Team (LEMD1)
The LEMDO Team is based at the University of Victoria and normally comprises the project
director, the lead developer, project manager, junior developers(s), remediators,
encoders, and remediating editors.
QME Editorial Board (QMEB1)
The QME Editorial Board consists of Helen Ostovich, General Editor; Peter Cockett, General Editor (Performance); Andrew Griffin, General Editor (Text); and Janelle Jenstad General Editor (Text).
University of Victoria (UVIC1)
https://www.uvic.ca/Metadata
| Authority title | Annotations: True Tragedy of Richard III |
| Type of text | Annotation |
| Publisher | University of Victoria on the Linked Early Modern Drama Online platform |
| Series | Queen’s Men Editions |
| Source |
Annotations written by Toby Malone to accompany his modern text of True Tragedy of Richard III. Encoded in TEI-XML by the LEMDO Team for republication in the QME 2.1 anthology on the LEMDO platform.
|
| Editorial declaration | Encoded in TEI P5 according to the LEMDO Customization and Encoding GuidelinesEdited according to the ISE Editorial Guidelines, with reference in the revision stage to the DRE/NISE Editorial Guidelines and the LEMDO Encoding Guidelines. |
| Edition | Released with Queen’s Men Editions 2.1 |
| Sponsor(s) |
Queen’s Men EditionsThe Queen’s Men Editions anthology is led by Helen Ostovich, General Editor; Peter
Cockett, General Editor (Performance); Andrew Griffin, General Editor (Text; until
2026); and Janelle Jenstad, General Editor (Text; 2026–)
|
| Encoding description | |
| Document status | published, peer-reviewed |
| Funder(s) |
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada
McMaster University Poculi Ludique Societas University of Waterloo University of Toronto Centre for Drama, Theatre & Performance Studies University of Victoria Friends of the ISE |
| License/availability |
Intellectual copyright in this edition is held by the editor, Toby Malone. The critical paratexts are licensed for reuse under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license, which means that they are freely downloadable without permission under the following
conditions: (1) credit must be given to the editor, QME, and LEMDO in any subsequent
use of the files and/or data; (2) derivatives (e.g., adapted scripts for performance)
must be shared under the same CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license; and (3) commercial uses are
not permitted without the knowledge and consent of the editor, QME, and LEMDO. This
license allows for pedagogical use of the critical paratexts in the classroom. Neither
the content nor the code in this file is licensed for training large language models
(LLMs), ingestion into an LLM, or any use in any artificial intelligence applications;
such uses are considered to be commercial uses and are strictly prohibited.
Production photographs and videos on this site may not be downloaded. They appear
freely on this site with the permission of the actors and the ACTRA union. They may
be used within the context of university courses, within the classroom, and for reference
within research contexts, including conferences, when credit is given to the producing
company and to the actors. Commercial use of videos and photographs is forbidden.
|