Edward … princes The deaths of Edward IV and the princes in the Tower, unlike in Shakespeare’s play, occur in view of the audience. See this edition’s General Introduction for further analysis. Shore’s Wife Daughter of a successful merchant and wife to goldsmith William Shore, Elizabeth Shore became a notorious figure during and after her lifetime due to her affairs with public figures including Edward IV and William, Lord Hastings. She was erroneously given the name Jane in Thomas Heywood’s play , a name with which she has become synonymous, although in this play she is referred to as Shore’s wife. For more information, refer to this edition’s introduction and supplementary material. The 1594 title page indicates the playwright’s priority for (and selling point of) Shore’s wife’s story: With a lamentable ende of Shores wife, an example for all wicked women is centred and italicized. For further analysis of Shore’s wife’s role, see this edition’s General Introduction. Queen’s … Players The Queen’s Men. Thomas Creede A stationer whose career spanned 1582 to 1616, and who dwelt at the sign of the Catharine Wheel, near the Old Swan, in Thames Street (Bullen 69). William Barley A bookseller who served an apprenticeship with the Drapers’ Company and trained with bookseller Yarath James, who owned the shop at Newgate Market near Christ Church door. Barley had his own shop in St. Peter upon Cornhill from 1592, but continued to sell from the Newgate site, as shown by this title page (Johnson 12). Christ Church door Christ Church Greyfriars, in Newgate Street. The original thirteenth century monastic church was used as a parish church at the time that Barley’s shop stood nearby and was destroyed during the Great Fire of London in 1666. The edifice was rebuilt according to the designs of Sir Christopher Wren, and was destroyed again during the Blitz. Enter Truth … Poetry They appear as prologue (and may have appeared later in epilogue in the form of messengers, see ) in an unusually extensive appearance of Senecan arguments to set out the narrative. In contrast, this play’s prologue only sets forth the story up to the point at which the stage action is to commence (Griffin 88). To them The ghost’s appearance warrants discussion between Truth and Poetry, which makes clear that they have observed his entrance and his subsequent dropping of his shield. The silent interaction between the ghost and the two allegorical figures would have been a dramatic, meaningful moment. Each character would have been recognizable by their dress, or indicative elements, as this interaction sets the scene for the remainder of the play. holding … shield A shield expresses emblematic power, not only as a defensive tool, but also as an expressive display object, representing heraldic status. As Fleischer notes, itself an attribute of Minerva, Faith, and others, it also—in its ornamentation—can bear national or personal devices or even occasional messages (Fleischer 183). Clarence’s shield bears an expository message, an unusual device given the improbability of an audience reading it. This is solved once Clarence abandons his shield, so Truth and Poetry may read it. This is emblematic of the prologue scene itself, or, as shield to Ghost, so Induction to play (Fleischer 184). Cresce … vendicta Rise, blood! Blood is sated by blood! Rise, that which I wish for! I thirst, O I thirst, I thirst, Vengeance! Greg credits 1844 editor Barron Field with apparently reconstructing the Latin as Cresce cruor, sanguis satietur sanguine, cresce, / Quod spero citò. O citò, citò vendicta (or sitio vindictam)! (Greg 1929 x). Griffin notes this is the first of three examples in the play where the author flaunts his Latin quotations from Seneca though he also condescends to translate them (69). vendicta Irish notes this word as Senecanism in the ghost’s blood-thirsty nature (126). The ghost calling for vengeance is a well-worn early modern theatre trope, which includes the ghost in Hamlet, the prophesying ghost of Albanacht in Locrine, the ghost of the murdered royalty in , all of whom cry for vengeance (Fleischer 229). Truth … player? As verse, this collection of lines is difficult to scan, but given that the remainder of this scene (featuring the personification of Poetry) is in verse, it makes little sense to consider this segment as prose. The disjointed nature of Truth and Poetry’s interactions could signal performance considerations, such as the two figures warily circling each another or negotiating the space. Despite the difficulty in scanning the meter, this short section is more useful as verse. well met You are welcome in my company ( meet, v.7.f). What makes thou What are you doing here? Shadows Images of reality translated to the stage ( shadow, n.6.b), or actors representing dead historical figures. This passage provides the additional tinge of dramatic irony in spectral forms, or phantoms ( shadow, n.7). Walsh expands on this by noting that this is a synonym for players in some early modern theatrical discourses, a metaphorical description of theatre itself, one that highlights the insubstantial, fleeting, ephemeral, and also dubious nature of performance (80). Then will … bodies Hunter notes, Poetry can only (as in Plato) offer shadows, but Truth can give substance to poetic shadows by showing things that actually happened (16). Therefore … leave Go and let me. Truth dismisses Poetry, as she recognizes the stage as a space to transmit information and sees the emptiness and presumably false nature of Poetry as something which needs to be expunged (Walsh 80). her The feminine depiction of Truth evokes the Roman figure of Veritas, or her Greek counterpart, Aletheia. Walsh suggests the feminine Truth: might also draw on the veritas filia temporis motif. Truth is the daughter of time, a recurring trope in the sixteenth century, was often deployed in the context of religious polemic and was embodied in royal and civic pageants in celebration of both Mary and Elizabeth in the 1550s. (78) pageant Play with historical lessons for its audience about the fall of kings. player Actor ( player, n.4). will Truth … player? Poetry’s question could be literal: will the actor playing Truth also play other roles in that performance? With casts of only 14, early modern actors frequently doubled or played more than one role. Poetry emphasises Truth is not always present on stage: her participation is noteworthy. Tragedia-like In the style of Greek tragedy. done but late Recently completed, undertaken in living memory. late Recently. drooping Failing, decaying, flagging ( drooping, adj.2). Richard Plantagenet Richard of York, father to Edward IV, Clarence, and Richard III, appears in Shakespeare’s and was a chief antagonist to Henry VI. descent Transmission of title to heirs ( descent, n.I.1.a). Q spells this word as dissent, or disagreement or loss of popularity (see Thomas, Prōsāpia), but this is a common alternate spelling for this word. chronicles Detailed and continuous register of events in order of time; a historical record, ( chronicle, n.1.a), understood to be facts delivered without bias. The wars of the roses were recorded in numerous chronicles, including Fabyan, Holinshed, Hall, Benet, Gregory, Hardyng, Croyland, Warkworth, Rous, and Waurin, amongst others. Walsh suggests this reference works to: claim authority, as if to reassure Poetry and the playgoers that the information being presented has an unimpeachable basis outside the theatre. The chronicles in this instance are a yardstick with which to measure other discourses of history. (85) act of parliament This timeline is muddled: the heir presumptive became unclear after the death of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, in 1447, but Richard of York’s candidacy was not confirmed until the Act of Accord in 1460, Henry VI’s 38th year. Churchill (406) proposes that this unclear timeline is down to the playwright’s over-reliance on Hall’s chronicle, which mistakenly suggests a date for this act of parliament (see Hall, 249). dignity Honour, position, rank ( dignity, n.2.a). The first of two references within 13 lines . not contented … time Not willing to wait patiently. Yorkists declared civil war only months after the Act of Accord, where Richard of York died. outrage Disorder, violence ( outrage, n.1.a). This word is repeated four times throughout the play (see , , ), always as an indicator of political or physical violence. Wakefield … pitched The Battle of Wakefield was waged on December 30 1460, in West Yorkshire, near Sandal Castle. This conflict saw victory for Henry VI and the death of Richard of York. Outrageous Fierce, cruel (Hollyband, Farouche). latest Last, final ( latest, Adjective A.1). Edward, now … king In this compacted timeline, we enter 22 years after Edward’s 1461 coronation (as Truth notes at ), after Clarence’s death (1478) and before his own (1483). Then Henry … Edward IV Then Henry VI, after the death of Richard of York, was prevented from taking the throne again, which resulted in the coronation of the next king, Edward IV. style Ceremonial designation, titles and dominions ( style, n.II.18.a). Henry passed these to Edward after defeat at the battle of Tewkesbury (1471). But tell … Truth A pertinent question, given the lack of clarity over Henry’s death. The actual circumstances are murky, but he died in the Tower following the battle of Tewkesbury, likely murdered (Griffiths). attainted Tainted, corrupted ( attainted, adj.4). Clarence’s interests on both sides led to his imprisonment and death. Falsely of treason Clarence’s interests on both sides and ongoing implications in various inheritance schemes suggests the treason accusation is probably true. unnaturally Inhumanly, unfeelingly, cruelly, wickedly ( unnaturally, adv.1). Both uses relate to Richard (see ). parents’ stock His ancestry ( stock, A.1.3.a). butt Cask usually measured between 108 and 140 gallons ( butt, n.4.1.a). The rumour of Clarence’s unusual death is corroborated in contemporary accounts (Jean de Roye, Mancini, the Crowland continuator), and has suggested links to Clarence’s alleged love for alcohol (Hicks). Blood … revenge As a vegetation metaphor, blood is a sign of regeneration, a natural birth in the order of things, and renews the earth for new plant life to grow. The motto therefore notes that while blood intentionally sprinkled will encourage new life to spring, blood that is spilled through violence or murder is unnatural and thus demands vengeance. Then Moses took the blood, and sprinkled it on the people, and said, Behold the blood of the covenant, which the Lord hath made with you concerning all these things (GNV, Exodus 24.8). A man ill-shaped The traditional notion of Richard as a hunchback may have been Tudor propaganda but was partially proven as scoliosis upon the August 2012 discovery of Richard’s skeleton in Leicester. crooked-backed For this line to scan, pronounced crookt-backed. tyrannous For this line to scan, pronounced tyrr’nous. minority The period of a person’s life prior to attaining full age ( minority n.1.a and minor adj.I.3.a), which means he requires a guardian. Edward V was twelve years of age at his father’s death, and was uncrowned king for 86 days before he was disinherited by Richard. lord protector The role of surrogate governor due to the minority of the sovereign ( protector, n.2.a). Richard was not named as such until after Edward’s death, but the playwright compacts time to insert this pertinent point. Gentles People of gentle birth and rank ( gentle, adj.1.b). Truth redirects attention from Poetry to address the audience in a: verbal gesture which prevents the prologue from being a self-contained exchange among characters. Rather, it makes evident this opening has been calculated to involve the audience in the enterprise of historical representation. (Walsh 82) This phrase is repeated in the play’s epilogue (see ). two-and-twenty Repeated alliteration in discussion of Henry VI’s 22nd year (see ). In this case, the dating is accurate: it incorporates both Edward IV’s first (1461–1470) and second reigns (1471–1483) but elides Henry VI’s brief restoration (1470–1471). like to die Near to death. Edward IV’s final illness set in over Easter 1483, but he had time to set his business in order and appoint Richard protector. duke his brother Richard of Gloucester. two sons … daughters Not including illegitimate issue, Edward had ten children: three boys and seven girls. The two sons noted are Edward, prince of Wales, and Richard, duke of York. Only five daughters are named, which is down to More: Elizabeth, whose fortune and grace was after to be queen, wife unto King Henry the Seventh, and mother unto the Eighth; Cecily not so fortunate as fair; Brigette, who, representing the virtue of her whose name she bear, professed and observed a religious life in Dartford Priory, Kent, a house of close nuns; Anne, that was after honorably married unto Thomas, then Lord Howard and after Earl of Surrey; and Katherine sic, which long time tossed in either fortune, sometime in wealth, often in adversity. (see Master Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) More does not mention George, Margaret, or Mary. hapless Destitute, unfortunate, unlucky ( hapless, adj.1). excuse … matter Pardon the play’s length because the content will be entertaining. Wend Go, proceed ( wend, v.II.8.a). As actors who will take other roles in the play, Truth invites Poetry to leave the stage so that they may participate: we have no reason to believe that, as in The Spanish Tragedy, they would stay to watch. A secondary layer offers further interpretation: be transformed ( wend, v.I.4.b) implicates their impending change of costume and character, which offers the meaning to the actors. Scene 1 Probably a prose scene mistakenly treated as verse by the typesetter, or, as McMillin and MacLean posit, a company-sponsored scribe, who expected verse and misinterpreted pauses as end-stopped verse lines: this mystery scribe hears the end of a line, but the actor is only pausing in the syntax of prose. As a result, the scribe writes a blank verse that is not being spoken (117). Edward IV … bed Edward’s entrance, sick in his bed, would include curtains which are drawn after his death. The bed would have been pushed on stage through a door or opening, or potentially from a discovery space. As Thomson notes, if, as this direction seems to indicate, the bed was out on the stage the most straightforward reading is that it was curtained (36). There are two beds in this play, the second the site of the princes’ murder. Lord Hastings This scene dramatizes how Hastings, a long-time loyalist to Edward, has maintained his antagonism to the Woodville faction. Ironically, accusations of collusion with Woodvilles led to his summary execution in June 1483. Marquess Q records the title of Dorset, marquess, as Marcus, as though it were a name. Greg proposes this a scribe’s mishearing of the word Marquess (1929, vi). This edition corrects to Marquess on all occasions. to them Richard Richard enters anonymously, not afforded the coup de theatre of Shakespeare (see 1.1.1.s.d.). Rather than appear at the point of triumph, this Richard enters quietly as an observer during a sensitive moment, without a single line. His would have been a striking, mysterious figure, and his presence is a reminder of the power of a mute character. Churchill argues that this entrance is a corrupted stage direction left over from an earlier text, and that Richard does not actually appear, and dismisses the potential of a mute Richard in this scene (416). in all happiness In all good fortune, success, prosperity ( happiness, n.1.a). Hastings knows Edward is soon to die; adding this phrase to his customary greeting lets Hastings demonstrate his sensitivity. Dorset Speech headings corrected from Q’s Marcus for clarity of naming. An honorable … king May honorable age, with the richness of Croesus’ wealth, extend the hours of the king’s life. Croesus’ A Lydian king synonymous with fabulous wealth. Rich as Croesus was a contemporary proverb (Tilley C832). hourly attend The actor who plays Dorset may pick up the same sycophancy in flattering the king; alternately, his sincerity may mock Hastings. Dorset’s line reminds us of Edward’s quickly-failing health. the person That is, the body, respectfully stated ( person, n.II.3.a). peers Members of hereditary nobility ( peers, n.4.a). Given Dorset’s marginal nobility, with minor family connections until his mother married Edward (Pugh), this equation of the two may be unwelcome for Hastings. unthankfulness Ingratitude ( unthankfulness, n.1). Dorset clarifies in the next line (see ). he that … here God who put me in my death-bed. Edward was not renowned for his piety, unlike his predecessor, Henry VI. Edward’s notoriety was due to his womanizing, his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, and his pre-contract to Lady Eleanor Talbot, which might bring his death-bed piety into question (Horrox). estate State or condition: material, moral, bodily ( estate, n.I.1.a). seen … all Evident. dreadful Inspiring dread, fear, awe ( dreadful, adj.n.2.a). stroke Crushing act of divine chastisement or vengeance ( stroke, n.1.3.a). The brutality of this phrase shows Edward expects retribution. friendly-wise An amicable manner ( friendly, adj.2.a). malice Active ill will or hatred ( malice, n.I.1.a). This word appears on six more occasions in this play, demonstrating the angry tenor of the subject matter (see , , , , , ). envy The Woodvilles were the object of Yorkist innuendo and scorn for their perceived social climbing. Even so, this play presents the Mother Queen as a strong, resourceful figure worthy of the play’s epilogue as direct ancestor to Elizabeth I. sedition Dissent, disorder ( sedition, n.1.a). In the first blush of the Yorkist reign, the risk of Lancastrian uprisings were common. admonished Warned, put in mind of (Cooper, Calais). discretions Abilities to adjudicate ( discretion, n.I.1.a). enemy Adversary, antagonist, opponent ( enemy, n.I.1.a) to their own advancement. This word appears nine times, five linked with matters of pride. league of amity Union based on friendship. The enmity was ongoing and was based in political jealousy over favor. Despite Edward’s efforts, he could not heal this rift. you may … soul Edward’s self-serving request is canny in understanding that by leaving his son as heir, such dysfunction would be dangerous. His hope is the act of swearing fealty will build support for the future king. celestial From the heavens ( celestial, adj.2.a). Despite his flaws, Edward assumes he is bound for paradise. decease Death. wise … counsel Edward establishes he will not choose between his closest advisor (Hastings) and his family (Dorset), and that he hopes both sides will counsel the new king. bring comfort The factions in Edward IV’s court were a cause for worry, with the knowledge that exiles awaited an opportunity to return, feared as a potential precursor to civil war. What Suggests a pause, as opportunity for both men to speak, but neither takes the invitation. Since this temporary halt speaks to each man’s reluctance to apologize first, they might exchange an unfriendly glance. resolute Constant, firm, steadfast (Florio, Costante). Edward repeats the coupling of this word with ambition (see ). ambition Determination, pride ( ambition, n.I.1). submit Consent, comply ( submit, v.I.1.a). This word is used four times in this play, all in the next thirty lines, as surrender to the king’s will. my father Elizabeth has a more significant role in this play than in Shakespeare: as the hope for the future, she is the one to unify the warring parties. sues for peace Chases, pursues an agreement ( sue, v.III.14.b). mitigate your wrath Lessen the violence of our feud. ambitious Ruthless. This reference to ambition supplies another stress on its role in the feud (see ). last … death Edward is near death, but he clearly uses his state to manipulate an agreement. tormented Agitated, distressed ( torment, v.3.a). entreaty An earnest or humble request ( entreaty, n.3). courteous Gracious ( courteous, adj.2.a). The obsolete word curtuous, defined in Baret as gentle, kind (Baret, curtuous) is the original spelling here. of From. mark Target an archer aims at ( mark, n.VI.23.a). except 'Unless', 'if not' ( except, conj.2). upshot A final shot in a match at archery ( upshot, n.1). head Arrow-tip ( head, n.II.i.16.a). Dorset puns on the head Hastings soon loses from his shoulders. losses Costs of defeat ( loss, n.2.d). To complete the archery imagery, Dorset equates wagers placed on a match to the losses their enmity brings society. sith Seeing that ( sith, conj.4, now arch.). jar Discord, want of harmony ( jar, n.II.5). greater … this Edward’s inability to bring Dorset and Hastings to accord is a reminder of his weakness. This reunion, he felt, should have been simple, had he his full strength. I take … both The rivalry is for Edward’s final approval; when he rejects them both the stakes are raised, as his final decrees may disadvantage both. an’t … majesty If your majesty pleases. a prey A person who is easily deceived or harmed ( prey, n.I.2.a). mine enemy Not necessarily only Dorset, but any who mistrust the Woodville faction, if Hastings appears to reach across the divide, as Richard’s silent presence makes more pertinent, as he will later use this information to doom him. Ah, yield, … marquess Edward echoes Elizabeth’s plea and prefaces the unification they hope for. obstinate Stubborn, stiff, firm (Thomas, Obstĭnātē). content Satisfied ( content, adj.I.2.a). This extension of Elizabeth’s contented indicates satisfaction that Hastings acquiesced first (see ). foul offence Dorset offers his chest to his enemy’s blade to apologize for upsetting his king, not for any wrong done to Hastings. than Rather than. take … hand Hastings offers his hand first, but Dorset does not accept it immediately, which sets the potential of Hastings standing with arm outstretched for five lines of dialogue; dropping his proffered hand in annoyance; or a physical reaction (see ). More records this handshake: there in his presence as by their words appeared, each forgave other, and joined their hands together, when (as it after appeared by their deeds) their hearts were far asunder (see Master Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). league of amity Hastings repeats Edward’s earlier phrasing as a public show of support (see ). not … deed Dorset echoes Hastings almost precisely, to suggest mockery or even disbelief. His statement questions Hastings’s vow and actions. to have … withal Dorset’s much more graphic description of Hastings’ death strives to top its equivalent statement, and might be played as a humorous final attack under the guise of forgiveness (see ). shivered Broken, shattered ( shivered, adj.1). in piecemeals Into small pieces ( piecemeal, n.I.2.a), or one piece at a time; little by little, by degrees, in stages (by piecemeals, piecemeal, n.I.2.b). fowls … air Carrion-eaters, scavengers, like raptors, crows, ravens, gulls. allegiance Note the parallel to Hastings’s two references to entreaty (), which are pleas; Dorset makes clear he is allied to the king, not simply someone obeying a command. perfect Righteous, immaculate, flawless ( perfect, adj.I.1.a). friendship Harmony, affinity ( friendship, n.5). forever Dorset disingenuously echoes Hastings’ earlier phrasing to emphasise its hyperbole (see ). for confirming … it To seal the compact. falsify Alter, pervert ( falsify, v.1.f). confusion Damnation or overthrow, ruin ( confusion, n.1.a). The treble repetition of the word seals the chaos about to begin (see ). Later, Richard uses the same word to describe what would happen if his plot to kill the princes became known (see ). Ludlow The prince of Wales and duke of York lived at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire until their father’s death. the rest … kindred More notes, adjoined were there unto him other of the same party, and, in effect, every one as he was nearest of kin unto the queen so was planted next about the prince (see Master Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). This notion backfired as Richard used the confluence of Woodvilles as ammunition to claim treason. be unto … me Presumably, respectful and attentive. thirteen … most This is relatively accurate: Edward V was 12 years, 5 months old when his father died, and probably died before his thirteenth birthday. government Guidance, direction, control ( government, n.I.1.d). my brother Richard, duke of Gloucester, the first reference to him in this scene, even as he reacts throughout. His reactions might vary, depending on actors’ choice: he may in fact be a comforting presence for his brother. More and Hall place the nomination of protector at a council meeting prior to Edward’s arrival from Ludlow (see ) (Wilson 302). The playwright may have gleaned this information from Francis Segar’s poem on Gloucester in The Mirror for Magistrates. give thee this While this could simply refer to Edward’s command that Elizabeth be loyal to her brother, an actor may play this as offering a kiss or, less likely, a gift for Elizabeth to take. A minor change in punctuation (give thee this. (he kisses her) Be loyal ) offers a different option for the actor. be loyal … brother Elizabeth’s later union with Richmond is an implicit fulfillment of this request, as she refuses to marry her brothers’ murderer. authority Role and time as sovereign. prayers Requests, entreaties ( prayers n.1.2, now rare). scepter and crown An ornamental rod or wand (often of gold and jewelled) borne in the hand as a symbol of regal or imperial authority ( sceptre, n.1.a); a circular ornamental headdress worn by a monarch as a mark or symbol of sovereignty ( crown, n.I.1.a). Together, symbolized power or authority; royal or imperial dignity, sovereignty, supremacy. Tacit acknowledgement that the king’s son has the king’s preferment as heir. As Churchill (407–408) notes, this parting speech is borrowed directly from Hall: Oh I am so sleepy, that I must make an end, and now before you all I commend my soul to almighty God, my savior and redeemer: my body to the worms of the earth, my kingdom to the Prince my son, and to you my loving friends my heart, my trust, and my whole confidence. (see ) draw the curtains Close the bed-curtains. Beds were usually thrust on stage through one of the stage doors. Curtains would hang from the bed’s canopy, so the bed need not be removed before the king dies. With the specific stage direction for the king’s death, the audience witnesses the death (see ). See Leslie Thomson’s . unto … spirit And Jesus cried with a loud voice, and said, Father, into thine hands I commend my spirit. And when he thus had said, he gave up the ghost (GNV, Luke 23:46). Fortune Shore’s wife’s first phrase is apt, given her depiction as one on whom Fortune had smiled, only to be dashed to penury. From her preferment as the king’s favorite mistress, Rowan notes it seems certain that she ended her days as a beggar and prostitute (458), while some traditions inaccurately suggest Shoreditch earned its name as the ditch in which her pauper’s grave lay. fortunate One who makes others fortunate, gives good fortune to ( fortunate, v.1). famous Renowned, glorious, excellent (Florio, Famoso). Fame is an attribute Shore’s wife had long been accused of craving; her prior hubris already causes difficulty in this first scene. Later, Richard calls Shore’s wife a famous strumpet, to bring this phrase full circle (see ). mere mercy Absolute, perfect mercy in the fullest sense ( mere, adj.II.4). Shakespeare uses the same phrase once in Q1 : This is meere mercie, and thou seest it not (F4v). fraught Carrying, burdened by ( fraught, adj.3). mirrors Shore’s wife repeats this imagery after she hears of the king’s death (see ). This evokes Churchyard’s poem (see How Shore’s Wife was Despoiled) in The Mirror for Magistrates, one of this play’s sources, and acts as a specific warning to sinners (Churchill 412). magnanimity Courage, fortitude ( magnanimity, n.2). Repeated alliteration heightens Shore’s wife as a character to be censured for daring to question Fortune. I would … me With the king’s sickness close to her mind, Shore’s wife notes her tenuous hold on luck, and wishes she had no notoriety or taste of fame. exclaim Accuse, blame, rail at ( exclaim, v.2.a). condemn Doom, damn ( condemn, v.5.a and v.5.b). Shore’s wife will later repeat the same term (see ). advanced Elevated, benefited ( advanced, v.I.3). so may … down Shore’s wife does not appear to believe her fall inevitable: indeed, Fortuna was a fickle goddess who acted on her whims, both to raise a person up and drop them down. the king … sick A virile, handsome king in his youth, Edward’s health became a matter of concern in his waning days: with over-liberal diet, somewhat corpulent and burly, and natheless not uncomely; he was of youth greatly given to fleshly wantonness This fault not greatly grieved the people, for neither could any one man’s pleasure stretch and extend to the displeasure of very many, and was without violence. (Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) He probably declined due to pneumonia or diabetes, exacerbated by his extravagant lifestyle: the poem describing Edward’s sudden death in is tellingly entitled (236), while Baldwin notes Edward’s lifestyle in his poem on Rivers: The king was bent too much to foolish pleasure, / In banqueting he had so great delight: / This made him grow in grossness out of measure. / Which as it kindleth carnal appetite, / So quencheth it the liveliness of the spirit, / Whereof ensue such sickness and diseases, / As none can cure, save death, that all displeases. (see How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned) presageth Warns, senses a bad omen ( presage, n.1.a). mishaps Misfortune, injury, harm, damage ( mishap, n.3). for … king We are not told how long it has been, but given Edward died surrounded by two courtiers, his brother, and his daughter (conspicuously not his queen) indicates the absence of amorous thoughts in his last days. approached Loomed, impended. I have … all Shore’s wife’s generosity was well documented: where the king took displeasure, Shore’s wife would mitigate and appease his mind; where men were out of favor, she would bring them in his grace; for many who had highly offended, she obtained pardon; of great forfeitures she got men remission; and finally, in many weighty suits, she stood many men in great stead either for none or very small rewards. (see More Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London; More History, 49–50) Churchyard repeats such a perspective in his Mirror for Magistrates entry: I took delight in doing each man good, / Not scratting all myself as all were mine, / But looked whose life in need and danger stood, / And those I kept from harm with cunning fine. (see How Shore’s Wife was Despoiled) still ready Will in future. prefer Advance, promote ( prefer, v.I.1.a). preferment Advantage, position, benefit ( preferment, n.I.2). would deny Shore’s wife was particularly persuasive with Edward: But the merriest was this Shore’s wife, in whom the king therefore took special pleasure. For many he had, but her he loved (see More as quoted in Holinshed Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London; History, 49). Chute’s version of Shore’s wife boasts of how she manipulated Edward by withholding affection (see Beauty Dishonored Written Under the Title of Shore’s Wife). In Churchyard’s poem, Shore’s wife claims I governed him that ruled all this land: / I bare the sword, though he did wear the crown (see How Shore’s Wife was Despoiled). want Go without, suffer. heavens forfend May God forbid, avert ( forfend, v.2.a). nothing … comfort me While renowned for her dalliances, her position as mistress prevented her from inheriting money or property on Edward’s death. As a pseudo-widow, she faces loss of her sole income. withal As well, on top of it all ( withal, adv.1.a). my foes … triumph The public perception of Shore’s wife as social climber and (later) witch indicates she did not ingratiate herself with others in Edward’s court. scape Escape, recover. feather my nest Make the most of my opportunities, enrich myself (, feather, v.I.5.a). that blow … cold So that no matter how cold the winter storms blow. throughly Fully, completely, perfectly ( throughly, adv.1.a), as in wash me throughly from mine iniquitie (GNV, Psalms 2.2). Mistress Shore One of only two forms of address for Shore’s wife, implicit emphasis of her perceived promiscuity combined with the shame of an adulteress, having abandoned her husband for the king. Even if William Shore were complicit in the arrangement (as Heywood sympathetically illustrates in his play ), the moral judgment seems embedded. come … with him Lodowick’s go-between role emphasises the scandal. Hastings is quoted in Dolman’s poem in the Mirror for Magistrates: Shore’s wife was my nice cheat. / The holy whore, and eke the wily peat: / I fed his lust with lovely pieces so, / That God’s sharp wrath I purchased, my just woe. (see How the Lord Hastings was Betrayed) And later describes her as his tender piece (see How the Lord Hastings was Betrayed). recovered Restored; regained, brought back ( recovered, adj.1). Lodowick quibbles on how death recovered his soul back to God. He hath recovered A political lie. Lodowick has not been sent to deliver news of Edward’s death, but to deliver her to Hastings, who would presumably report it. long looked for For years anticipated and hoped to reach. mend Improve, heal ( mend, v.I.5.a). Mistress Shore means physically; Lodowick hedges to mean spiritually. greatest … torments Edward’s earthly burden as opposed to the burden of the enmity resolved prior to death. Lodowick repeats the term Edward uses prior to his death (see ). contentment … prince Satisfaction of King Edward IV ( contentment, n.1.a). The nobles … them Lodowick’s knowledge of Hastings’ mind allows aspersions that the lords’ agreement was a false show for the king’s benefit. revivest Restore, bring back from the dead ( revive, v.2.a). ended Lodowick says the agreement ended the moment Edward died, but his phrasing hints it remains in place for now. Suggesting but few denotes surprise it is intact. changed Exchanged, given up, altered ( change, v.2.b). Ah me, … woman Shore’s wife’s immediate reaction to consider her own loss, rather than the loss of the king, demonstrates an awareness of how much her financial survival depended on Edward. misery Wretchedness, distress, misfortune (Thomas, Mĭsĕria). forsake Abandon, desert ( forsake, v.4.a). entertained Employed, took into service, enlisted ( entertained, adj.1). change Adapting Lodowick’s phrase to her shift in security (see ). Arguably, she can’t have believed she was set for life, but the king’s relatively young age (almost 41 at death) suggests the younger woman felt her future more secure. when I … lands Lodowick is fictional: no historical land exchange is recorded. Even so, in this situation, as Lodowick is attached to Hastings, a Yorkist loyalist, we can infer Lodowick’s (fictional) lands were confiscated by the Lancastrians, and when the regime changed, Shore’s wife had them returned. mirror A person or thing embodying something to be avoided; an example, a warning ( mirror, n.I.2). The repeated imagery emphasises her fragility and how she will later reflect back the shortcomings of those who look on her (see ). The reflective nature of the stage itself as a mirror is a common parallel, which dates to at least Roman times. unconstant Inconstant, fickle, changeable ( unconstant, adj.1.a). Shore’s wife repeats the phrase at . one friend King Edward IV. tree A familiar botanical image that equates the king to a sturdy trunk, but also evolves into a reference to a family tree. A metaphor for the central trunk of the king and the dependent branches of his followers. Shakespeare uses a similar image (see 2.2.41). offspring … heart Joys grown from my love ( offspring, n.4). never abide me An attitude directly adapted from Churchyard’s poem on Shore’s wife in The Mirror for Magistrates: But well was he that could procure my fall: / His brother was mine enemy most of all, / Protector then, whose vice did still abound, / From ill to worse till death did him confound. (see How Shore’s Wife was Despoiled) Chute, too, uses similar hyperbole in his poem on Shore’s wife: in it, Richard calls Shore’s wife the monster of her age (see Beauty Dishonored Written Under the Title of Shore’s Wife). Churchill, however, questions the especial rancor that Richard is supposed to have held for Shore’s wife, as there is no material evidence of any interactions between the two until it was useful to blame her for Hastings’s corruption (411). Following that, Richard’s disdain appears falsely moralistic, as More records: What manner of folk Edward most favored, we shall for his honor spare to speak of; howbeit this wot you well all, that whoso was best, bear alway least rule, and more suit was in his days made unto Shore’s wife, a vile and abominable strumpet, than to all the lords in England, except unto those that made her their protector, which simple woman was well named and honest till the king, for his wanton lust and sinful affection, bereft her from her husband, a right honest, substantial young man among you. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) to the death Violently, vehemently. whom Because I was the woman who. think well of Trust in, have faith in. alway Always, ultimately ( alway, adv.1). Repeated twice in quick succession for its only appearance in this play. helper Auxiliary, one who assists ( helper, n.1). For he … men Edward has always been kind to me, even though the world is fickle and men change quickly. Edward’s neglect in providing for her after his death contradicts this kindness somewhat. fickle False, deceitful, treacherous ( fickle, adj.1.a). Secondary meaning of changeable and inconstant by noting her enemies may reverse course. want Insufficiency ( want v.I.2.c). oppress Distress, afflict, weigh down ( oppress, v.2.b). at your dispose Yours to control as you see fit ( dispose n.3). think … money Have remembered the money you owe me. With thanks … for. Morton offers gratitude, not financial interest: the Citizen refuses more promises in lieu of his payment. But sir, … marvel The Citizen reacts negatively to Morton’s request to bear with him, perhaps with a non-verbal or physical cue. This provokes Morton’s immediate accusation of greed in the face of uncertainty. uncertain Subject to doubt ( uncertain, adj.3.a). our own The direction of our future. The Citizen assumes Morton means his personal fortune. quittance Discharge of debt by word of mouth before a witness (Baret, quittance). Where nothing … right When there is no money, not even the king could demand payment. Proverbial: you cannot get blood from a stone (Kelly 227, Tilley W107). And I … pardon Each favor is fictional, but are representative of Shore’s wife reputed kindness. Now, Mistress … you? Despite noting his debt, Morton’s question is unavoidably ghoulish, knowing the king is dead. This is the first instance of Shore’s wife as a public spectacle. try Test the quality of ( try, v.7.a). Citizen This speech is originally assigned to Morton, but the reference to a son is persuasive enough to correct this to the Citizen, the only character to mention a son (see ). Gramercies Thanks (Florio, Ringratiamenti). good father Polite address, which suggests (along with his reference to a son) that the Citizen is older than the others. The better … he He’s all the better thanks to you. bear us company Come with us to form a sort of procession. thinks … coming The reunion between Shore’s wife and Hastings has been delayed due to Edward IV’s illness. huffer Boaster, swaggerer, hector ( huffer, n.1.a). but by … leave If I may apologize for my impertinence ( leave, n.1 and P.1.a). Spoken out of Shore’s wife’s earshot. maim … credit Grave damage ( maim, v.2) to her standing or reputation ( credit n.I.1a). ace … maw A trump card in a trick-taking game of chance ( maw n.4.1a, hist). A now-rare card game, often referred to as five finger. As a trick-taking game, maw depends on the luck of the cards dealt, and the ways in which suits are stolen from opposing players. The ace of hearts was maw’s third trump card behind the five and jack, so the Citizen suggests Shore’s wife has allied herself to the next most powerful man in the deck, after losing her first two trumps in William Shore and Edward IV (Parlett, Historic Card Games). even … bake Their circumstances will be shaped by their own actions. Compare as you bake, so shall you brew (Tilley B654). an If. cold customers Poor debtors, people of questionable morality unwilling to pay. Mass By the mass, a mild curse. meet … better Discover my other debtors are also unwilling to pay. keep … household Go greatly into debt due to unpaid loans. The hour … absence Given the time of day, leave me alone. charge Duty, task, responsibility ( charge, n.II.13.a). Renowned … worthy Sycophantic endorsement of Richard’s right to be the protector. far deserves … king Is much worthier to be the king. govern Take responsibility for, protect ( govern, v.1.a) but secondarily, control and discipline ( govern, v.1.b). Catesby hints at how proper control of the young king will benefit Richard. young The young king’s youth is a sticking point, given the turmoil (and war) that surrounded the last child king, Henry VI. Plantagenet’s My father’s inherited birthright. but his son The rule of male primogeniture was customary in England based on the statutes of Common Law, but was not formalized until the reign of Henry VII. The flexibility in inheritance processes (given multiple claims from both sides) mean Richard’s contradiction, where he supports the king’s son right to inherit and then stakes his own right, demonstrates the fluidity of these claims. And who, … brother? Richard knows he has slipped in the line of succession and bemoans the laws which disadvantage him. Arguably, as his father negotiated his own right to the throne with Henry VI, Richard believes there are loopholes. bridle Curb, check, restrict ( bridle, v.1.a). Principality The rank of a prince, supreme authority ( principality, n.1.a). the title … god Churchill observes the similarity between this line and 1 Tamburlaine’s To be a king is half to be a god. / A god is not so glorious as a king (481). valiant Bold, brave, courageous ( valiant, adj.II.5.a). that in … riches Acts befitting the valiant. renown … soldier Fame, reputation, esteem for deeds of war ( renown, n.2.a). never … life Never offered or endowed but by the quality of deeds, and not revoked even in death. reaped … glory Collected, gathered ( reap, v.1) no possessions, only the esteem of others. becometh Suits, agrees with, recommends ( become, v.III.7.a). honor The inheritance Richard of York negotiated, only to be killed before he could reign. hazard Danger, jeopardy, peril (Florio, Pericolo, Periclo). brother’s sons? Whether he had completed his martial tasks for self-interest or for his house, Richard reasons that placing children as inheritors of his family legacy tarnishes the work undertaken. baser Less than, below ( base, adj.I.2.a). got Gained, acquired ( got, adj.1). hop … denies me Writhe after being beheaded, any who dare oppose him. Compare Shakespeare (see ). Have … sight Impediments dehumanized as logs, with specific reference to scripture: suffer me to cast out the mote out of thine eye, and behold, a beam is in thine own eye? Hypocrite, first cast out that beam out of thine own eye, and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother’s eye. (GNV, Matthew 7:4–5) Essentially, Richard can now see clearly. shadow To protect or shelter (a person or thing) from the sun ( shadow, v.1.a). shadow Dark foreboding. The young king stands between Richard and the glory of the crown and casts a shadow. Further, the playwright makes good on Poetry’s promise of shadows (see ) (Walsh 80). disinherit Were Edward V crowned, the heir presumptive would be his younger brother, the duke of York; were Edward V to have children, they would move ahead of Richard in the succession. Richard has a slender window of time to claim the throne before it is gone entirely. the yoke … brother The burden of Richard’s service for Edward IV. By metaphore it is a seruitude or a bon¬dage (Lily, Iugum, vertex, siue cacumen montis). This is a similar sticking point in Shakespeare (see 1.3.119–123). subject Submissive; obedient ( subject, adj.I.3.a). withhold Restrain, dissuade, keep back ( withhold, v.1.a). as I … reign Richard recognizes the difference; as protector he rules England, but does not reign over it. He has control but desires the status (see ). proudest Most valiant, bravest, mightiest ( proud, adj.II.6.a). sharpest shower Most sudden tempestuous downpour. The rendering of this phrase in Q gives sharpest shoure, which might be easily misread as sharpest hour, or most intense conflict, in martial terms. There is no doubt that shower is correct, however, both in the reign/shower pun and in the prior use of this term (Glaser (56) records its use in a fifteenth century ballad Index 5. Bodleian MS 3938, for example) to describe a swift, violent cloudburst. Proverbially, however, the sharpest shower wears itself out soonest, meaning Richard also refers to the fleeting nature of his power. Literally, this can also be read in terms of a volley of arrows: a very sharp shower indeed. the babes … beds Richard proposes grisly fates for the seemingly disposable princes, or babes: target-practice for soldiers, food for fish, and fertilizer for flowerbeds. Hall notes a rumour on the boys’ resting-place: reportedly submerged in lead-lined coffins in a place called the Black-deeps at the Thames mouth, so that they should never rise up nor be seen again (Hall). Hall’s detail is gleaned from John Rastell’s 1529 (Bullough 3.225). make them away Kill them. Page The style of speech here and in the following line are unusual for a stranger (see ). These lines are assigned to Percival in Q, but given Richard’s But what’s he with thee, I posit these are misattributed to Percival when they should be the Page’s lines (see ). Reassigning these lines to the Page means that Percival does not speak until invited (see ). The speech assignment of Perc is noted as irregular or doubtful by Greg (1929, ix), Churchill agrees (420). shall be Is soon to come. The Page’s presumption indicates the plot has support. Exit Page Shifting the Page’s exit to this position means he reacts directly to Richard’s command. give place Get out. animates Fills with boldness, encourages ( animate, v.I.1.a). Rise, … fall Further to Richard’s rejection of hell and damnation, self-reassurance over his plot (see ). devise Invent. The scheme against the boys is new. Richard’s amazement at Buckingham’s support fortifies his belief in the scheme. sets abroach Proclaims (Florio, Intimare), makes public ( abroach, adv.1.b). laugh … change Not literal laughter. Richard refers to a Tudor characterization of Fortune as laughing at humanity, as we see in More’s Fortune Verses: Fortune at them laughs; and in her throne, / Amid her treasure and wavering riches, / Proudly she hovers as Lady and Empress (121–123). For further discussion of Fortune’s laughter, see Allyna E. Ward’s . Richard acknowledges the fickleness of Fortune and the changes she enacts but will take his chances if they progress as he anticipates. As Ribner notes, Richard III, the villain, never calls upon God for assistance, or attributes events to the will of Providence. He relies entirely on himself, and it always upon fortune that he calls for aid (84). be … may Whether or not that’s so ( may, v.1.3.b). I will … colours I am afraid of no enemy or opponent ( colour, n.III.20.b). Colours refer to flags or ensigns of armies, and came to be understood as tricks or opposing schemes. ruth Compassion, or pity ( ruth, n.1). fame conquers death Richard looks ahead to chroniclers who will document his reign, but also the playwright and spectators who give him fame in this playhouse. Richard’s regular use of direct address suggests that he feeds off the audience and desires to ingratiate himself to them. Richard feeds off the audience’s energy, and takes their attention as approval for his actions. Later, the Page will point out the dilemma he identifies in his own (and the audience’s) collusion, also in direct address. long foes Rivals for a long time. Richard and Buckingham’s rivalry stretched to the reign of Henry VI, for Buckingham’s family links to the Woodvilles and distant claim to the throne. After Edward IV’s death, Buckingham initiated contact with Richard to secure his allegiance (Davies). Thy trust … lord The trust Buckingham has in you. utter … unto thee Tell you everything I’m thinking about. allay To bring down, overthrow (a person, nation, etc.); to reduce to submission ( allay, v.1.3). proud Haughty, arrogant, superior ( proud, adj.I.1.a). Woodville social climbing through Edward IV’s wife was a common complaint. friend Political ally. grace Favour, regard, goodwill ( grace, n.I.2.b). uttermost Outermost, limits ( uttermost, adj.1.a). whate’er … devise Whatever his plan. Because Richard has already decided the only course is to kill the boys, it is telling that he suggests Buckingham’s input is welcome. Buckingham does not believe himself a pawn. The providence Richard thanks comes in the form of Buckingham’s suggestion, and by assenting he secures his loyalty (see ). prince Buckingham is only concerned with King Edward V, although obviously if the young king were to miscarry, his brother would be the next target. At this stage the bastardy slur has not been formulated. might do well May be effective. our purpose Richard has a larger plan than simply separating the boys from their relatives, but is happy to share, or credit Buckingham with, the initial idea. he The young king. instant Event, occasion. The young king’s arrival in London, not the coronation. so play … part Self-conscious theatricality is a feature of Richard’s view of himself. Richard’s role will be significant not solely in the separation of the boys and their uncles, but also in the aftermath to become king: a notable metatheatrical reference. more … look for Richard declares his ambition clearly here: he wishes to be king and is unwilling to accept less. hairbreadth Width of a hair, an infinitesimally small space ( hairbreadth, n.1). Adjudge thou You be the judge; You determine the meaning. Richard has just declared his ambition, if in oblique terms, preferring to claim the idea is Buckingham’s. Further, Richard’s refusal to mention his ambition in front of Percival demonstrates his care not to be accused of treason and his distrust of Buckingham. it The actor might play this moment in multiple ways, such as terrified of disagreeing with Richard, or in knowing acceptance, which reflects Richard’s charm and influence. satisfy Furnish with proof, convince ( satisfy, v.I.5). word of mouth Spoken in formal or informal discourse, in this instance to keep the plan secret in case letters are intercepted. brave Courageous, daring, worthy ( brave, adj.1.a). footmen Foot soldiers ( footmen, n.1). lord chamberlain … Hastings Both references to the same man: William, Lord Hastings held the position of lord chamberlain until his execution in June 1483. Churchill notes this line as evidence that the playwright was familiar with Hall’s Chronicle, carelessly transcribing Henry duke of Buckingham, and William lord Hastings, and lord Chamberlain (348) as though they are three separate people (405). Zounds By God’s wounds ( Zounds, int.1), a mild expression of surprise. dares he trust Richard acknowledges that Hastings holds a strong affection for Edward IV and the princes, and thus is unlikely to follow Richard’s plan. as his … life As much as he trusts himself. secret Reserved, not given to indiscreet talking ( secret, adj.2.a). warrant Assure, guarantee ( warrant, v.4.e). weighty Of great gravity, serious, momentous ( weighty, adj.3.a). slipped Passed over, neglected, overlooked ( slip, v.I.i.7.a). funeral Decorum dictates Richard be in mourning for his brother’s death; hastening to Buckingham might provoke suspicion. screen … fire A household fixture which shields the grate from splattering fire into the room, and reduces the intensity of heat ( screen, n.I.1.a). Early modern household floors were covered with dry rushes, easily ignited. Richard’s subterfuges both shield and protect him from heat. In this metaphor, the heat refers to the risk of exposure or discovery that might disrupt Richard’s plan. strengthen myself Improve my claim to the throne. controversy Argument, contention ( controversy, n.1.a). Richard’s claim that Edward’s previously contracted marriage made his marriage invalid, and disinherited his children. Technically, Richard’s claim is legally sound (Cressy 306–307). kindred Richard looks to manipulate what is between his nephews and their claim to the throne, rather than engendering conflict between the kin of Edward IV (Richard himself) and Elizabeth’s family. in hucksters’ handling Likely to be roughly used or lost; beyond the likelihood of recovery ( huckster, n.3). A huckster is a mercenary petty profiteer. they not … friends His retinue are not firm allies. water … drown it The multitude of available Woodvilles is a strength Richard uses as a weapon, where mistrust and infighting will upset the balance. redouble Increase, intensify ( redouble, v.I.2). The modern grammar would say redoubles, or perhaps a word is missing: may redouble would correct the grammar. This is one of several examples of faulty grammar throughout the play: grammatical issues crop up in early modern English as used idiosyncratically by speakers in this work, specifically in subject-verb agreement. We have not corrected grammar lapses unless they make meaning too hard to comprehend for modern readers. Fortune Richard’s reference to Fortune echoes Shore’s wife’s reference (see ). Richard welcomes the turn of the wheel, having spent his time at the bottom before he moved to the top. Even if he falls—and Richard acknowledges this is likely—the infamy of the rise assures immortality. world report In the account of citizens and the memory of chroniclers. vassals Servants, lowest class citizens subordinate to everyone else and no opinion worth having ( vassal, n.2.b). it is enough Richard doesn’t retain this humble desire throughout—as soon as he achieves his aim he works to ensure he maintains his position. The developing plot and modest goals distances him from Shakespeare’s Richard. Sirrah Diminutive for a young male servant. This can be used to speak to a man, expressing contempt ( sirrah, n.1.a), but as the Page is a boy of apprentice age (12–24 years), this is a proper form of address. court General body of courtiers ( court, n.I.4.a). Joy, my lord Similar to Shakespeare’s scene where Buckingham gauges the appetite for Richard’s kingship (see 3.7.1), the Page seeks reactions to Richard as protector. murmur Discontent, muttered complaint, grumbling ( murmur, n.1.a). young king Edward V. A parlous … on A dangerous (or perilous) issue (as in bone of contention) to chew on (or grind between the teeth) before coming to a conclusion. a rush … other A bundle of dried plant stems tied together for various household purposes, like thatch, cleaning horses and dogs, chair seats, even cheap candles, if very tightly knit. But a single rush is worthless. The closely interwoven Woodvilles are like a closely-knotted bundle of rushes, whose unity may be weakened by one loose knot. Richard looks to undo the knot of Woodville confederates. His apparently artless description of what he would do with them (feed them to the dogs and or set them on fire) is not proverbial so much as violent means to get rid of them. Duke … Wales Buckingham’s army rallies in support of Richard, but reports interpret their action as a power grab. Richard is happy to let it seem Buckingham aims at the crown, which diverts attention from his own ambitions. Churchill (406–407) notes Buckingham’s location in the Marches of Wales, a territorial name of the borderland between Wales and England, is specifically mentioned in Hall’s chronicle (347). shadow Remnant, one without substance ( shadow, n.II.6.g). Repeated from Richard’s reference to impediments between him and the throne, Buckingham’s lack of military strength and lack of feasible claim recontextualize this fear (see ). In trust … treason Often those worthy of the greatest trust are most likely to be betrayers (Tilley T549). slippeth Moves quickly away. ill … tools Do not trifle with dangerous people and activities (proverbial, Tilley J45). For Richard, this includes princely matters. See also Greene: Take heede I say, it is ill iesting with edged tooles, and bad sporting with Kings (Greene F1r). Similar to If you play with fire, you’ll get burned. strike … hot Take advantage of the situation (proverbial, Tilley I94). I’ll trust … him A profound statement of distrust: Once out of sight, any duke might plot any scheme against me. your judgments The Page speaks to the audience, tasking them to decide for themselves about Richard’s future. As Walsh notes, this is just one instance of direct address the Page employs: later (see ) he is a traditional chorus figure, delivering details about off-stage events (84). There is a notable difference between the way that Richard constantly woos the audience, to draw them into his fantasies, and the Page’s stern caution that the audience is asked to interpret. wont Been in the habit or custom of ( wont, n.1.a). spider … fly The spider is a predator to the fly, and in this relationship, each man sees himself as the spider. Ultimately, as he will discover, Buckingham is the fly preyed upon by Richard’s spider. lord marquess Dorset. earls … Northumberland Westmorland did not fight at Bosworth but pledged loyalty to Henry VII after Richard’s death. Northumberland’s inaction at Bosworth is often claimed to be a reason for Richard’s defeat, susceptible to Richmond’s influence (Ellis). gear will cotton Matter will succeed, or go on ( Cotton, v.II.4). Compare (see ). what do I What am I doing. meddling Interfering, intervening ( meddle, n.). should … points Is better suited to helping my master undress (or untie his points, the ribbon or cord that attached hose to a doublet, or fastened a shoe ( point n.II.ii.23.a). The Page questions his aptitude for spying and scheming, when he feels like he should be doing standard servant’s tasks. beside As a result, in the end. meddle … end The Page understands too much meddling can result in misfortune; he vows to remain separate to save himself. napping Unawares. Greg confirms this reading, which has its first vowel obscured and potentially can be read as nipping (sharp, stinging, curt nipping, adj.1), thus altering the meaning significantly. any words A potential alternate reading on this phrase is my words, which helps clarify the sense of the line. This suggestion is offered with the acknowledgement that a typesetter could potentially mistake a scribe’s m for an, hence altering the line. my tongue … mouth I may say something out of turn to cause trouble. Haute Q and all subsequent texts list this character as Hapce, but this clearly refers to Elizabeth Woodville’s uncle, Sir Richard Haute. He is silent in this scene. Edward V As Greg notes (1929, ix), Q calls the young king King or Kng in speech headings, to reflect his newly-acquired (if not ceremonially confirmed) title. Edward IV is also called King in Q speech headings in his single scene, which in this edition is corrected to Edward IV for clarity’s sake (see ). This edition defers to Edward V, which leaves little doubt about the identity. Edward IV refers to his son as young king on four occasions, but for the sake of clarity we defer to his title (see ). Another option is to call him Prince, but since we do not meet the character until after he has inherited the crown (although never to see his coronation), Edward V is more apt. Right-loving Honest, worthy. company Body of accompanying armed figures ( company, n.4.b.i). mother hath written More reports Richard managed to persuade Elizabeth to write a letter to her son which dismissed his retinue (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). convenient Suitable, appropriate ( convenient, adj.3.b). Repeated below (see ). dismiss Disperse, disband ( dismiss, v.1.a). train Retinue, company (Baret, Company: societie, fellowship). Wilson notes connections between this speech and Shakespeare (see 2.2.120), including repeated words train, malice, green, and break (301), an element Greg suggests as evidence of Shakespeare’s inspiration by this play (1955, 80–81). for fear Lest, in case ( fear, n.3.b). Northampton … receive us Northampton is a halfway point between Ludlow Castle and London, and as it was not heavily populated (no more than several thousand), a large retinue could have drained resources. The Woodville family manor was in Grafton Regis, 8 miles south of Northampton, which explains familiarity between Rivers and the Host (see 1.3.119). The decision to dismiss the train grew from Richard’s reassurance that meeting at Stony Stratford (5 miles from Grafton Regis) will be beneficial; evidence suggests Rivers and Richard were previously friendly, so Rivers had little reason to fear. The necessity (feigned, according to Hall) of splitting the train between the towns of Northampton and Stony Stratford indicates a large retinue, threatening to Gloucester. Wilson (302) notes this detail, which is absent from Shakespeare but builds on a similarly-phrased passage from More (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London), is directly from Hall: the Woodvilles brought the young king toward London with a sober company in great haste (but not in good speed) till he came to Northampton, and from thence he removed to Stony Stratford. On which day. the two dukes and their bend came to Northampton, feigning that Stony Stratford could not lodge them all. (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York) again Furthermore. come … blood Richard’s appointment was unpopular with the Woodvilles, who correctly feared loss of influence. The young king appears aware of this tension, and is anxious not to antagonize his uncle Gloucester. my words … one My words agree with my mother’s letters. myself give consent Agree to this course of action. show Present, offer ( show, n.I.i.1.a). league … green Pact of alliance is fresh and new. Rivers’ phrasing is generous and suggests equal truce, when Lancastrian leaders were executed in the aftermath of the Battle of Tewkesbury and other loyalists were pardoned. This could well have ended the Wars of the Roses, but the death of Edward IV meant those pardoned Lancastrians saw a new opportunity to stake their claims. little cause The smallest, merest incident. variance Strife, contention, brawling (Thomas, Concertātĭo). Used later in relation to Richard and Buckingham (see ). requisite Necessary, compulsory ( requisite, adj. and n.). up Risen in rebellion ( up adv. 2.10.a). Marches of Wales The border counties in the west of England, close to Wales, where Buckingham had allies. He would later attempt to rouse these allies for his failed rebellion (Davies). for what … not The alliance between Richard and Buckingham is unnerving to the Woodvilles, as these men held open enmity prior to Edward IV’s death. boldly Without hesitation; assuredly ( boldly, adv.3). do as … good Do what you think is best. Why, my … obey These lines are probably spoken in a private conference, out of the young king’s earshot. Talk of treason (see ) and possession of the young king’s body is unlikely to inspire the boy with confidence in them (see ). king’s … traitor Vaughan and Rivers quibble on Richard’s mobilization: Vaughan believes Richard armed to protect the king, while Rivers considers it treason. in charge Under control, safely protected ( charge, n.II.12.a). care Worry, doubt, fear ( care, n.2). Richard later uses this word in fear of repercussions (see ). they the authority Gloucester has final say over the decisions the young king makes. Although the Woodvilles supervise the physical presence of the king, their power is minimal, and the young king, without his protector, is merely a figurehead. misdoubt Suspect, mistrust ( misdoubt, n.1). If Rivers identifies Gloucester a foe, he also suspects his ally, Buckingham, is similarly minded. conference Parlay, counsel ( conference, n.4.a). hear Find out. This word is re-used in the next scene (see ) as the Page forces the Host to spy on ( hear, v.10.a) the Woodvilles, using their tactic against them. pretense Intentions, reasons ( pretence, n.2). Note how this word is used in a different sense by Richard at . be good Be honorable, loyal, supportive. make return … them Catch up with us along with them. come … speed Hurry to us with information. my sister Historical inaccuracy: while Sir Richard Grey is often (including by Shakespeare) characterized as one of the young king’s uncles, he was Elizabeth Woodville’s son, so the young king’s half-brother. For my … obey Grey’s loyalty is the group’s downfall. Unable to identify the weakness in his plan, Grey’s prime justification is the word of the Mother Queen and young king. If it … grace Spoken deferentially to the young king. Exit Rivers By shifting this stage direction, the young king may personally say farewell to his uncle. my father’s years Edward IV lived to only 41 years of age. The young king’s youth is emphasized by his idealization of this age as a long, full life. God … may If God be willing. root … sown Uncover this mistrust and enmity rife. weary Regretful, remorseful, dispirited ( weary, v.I.1.b). mischiefs Evils, wickedness ( mischief, n.III.5). king-like resolution Wise and proper judgment. A passing hyperbolic connection between Edward V and the wisdom of King Solomon. Later, Henry VII is compared to Solomon (see ). toward Promising, willing, apt ( toward, adj.3). forward Inclined, committed ( forward, adj.3.c). whose … among us Who will, God willing, reign prosperously for many years. forward The young king wittily re-associates Vaughan’s word with their onward progress to London. Host Q renders this character as Oste both in speech headings and text. This might imply a lower-class accent in the treatment of his name, although Rivers also uses this same word. This is most logically an elision of Host. amazed Stunned, stupefied, bewildered ( amazed, adj.1). mad Bewilder, stupefy, daze ( mad, v.2). altogether Entirely, completely; wholly ( altogether, adv.1.a). because In order that ( because, adv.2). sumptuous Costly and magnificent ( sumptuous, adj.2). used friendly Treated amicably ( friendly, adv.1). possible … be— Greg notes this as an irregular reading (1929, ix) as Q provides no end stop to this line. This phrase is acceptable when punctuated, but without the period Greg questions whether there is a word missing or an interruption is implied. In this case, an em-dash is here adopted to indicate interruption, based on the host’s anxious energy. an If. several Separate, distinct ( several, adj.1.a). villain Rascal, a base, vile, abject, scurvy fellow, a scoundrel (Florio, Vigliacco). good old earl Rivers was only 43 years old, although at that time, when lifespans were considerably shorter, he would have been considered more of an elder statesman at that age. Rivers has stayed frequently at this inn, well known by the Host who is described as an old Host at his entrance, which suggests that the Host is the elder of the two, although this casting choice changes the dynamic between the two. A younger Host means he betrays a man he has known his entire life; an elder Host may have seen Rivers grow up. For the consideration of Rivers as good old earl at 43 years old, Churchill notes examples from contemporary plays, including , , and , where the designation of advanced age to a younger man was calculated to increase pathos (426–427). an I do If I do. no remedy No solution, alternative ( remedy, n.P.1.d). masters The audience. Walsh notes: the host confronts the playgoers by imputing to them a false perception of the world. In essence, he says, you think it’s like this, but really, it’s like that, a challenge to playgoers to consider his ethical dilemma in relation to King Richard’s rise to power. (84) troublesome vocation Distressing task of betrayal. crept into Unexpectedly stumbled or fell into. fair halter Sturdy noose ( halter, n.2.a). Mother Queen Modern parlance would describe the mother of the current monarch as Queen Mother (an informal title most recently held by Elizabeth Bowes Lyon 1900–2002), but this play describes Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Edward IV, as Mother Queen, to emphasize her maternal importance to this narrative. Elizabeth took sanctuary with seven of her children (including Princess Elizabeth and Richard, duke of York), at Westminster Abbey after Edward V was seized by Gloucester and Buckingham. This silent scene dramatizes their flight, potentially greeted by the archbishop of York. sanctuary A church or other sacred place in which, by the law of the mediæval church, a fugitive from justice, or a debtor, was entitled to immunity from arrest ( sanctuary, n.II.5.a). To indicate this space, a symbol might be incorporated, such as a large cross, or the assistance of an archbishop guiding them into safety (McMillin and MacLean 131). Similar to those in plays like , , and , the scene follows an Ancient Roman pantomime tradition of organizing important effects around visual emblems to convey information without words (McMillin and MacLean 133). Earl … chamber Where available, Rivers might speak from the upper stage, and call out from an opening down as Richard and Gloucester enter below. This efficiently conveys his confinement while his enemies are at liberty below. On tour, this would require adjustment where there is no available window or balcony. This might include a prison behind a central panel, or a small window in a stage door, or the upper stage, or a separate mansion that incidentally could also be used for the bed. This stage direction reflects a moment in Baldwin’s poem in which notes that Rivers opened the window to look out where he saw the streets each were beset around his inn (see How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned; How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned). Ho, mine … key? While there is a case to be made for lines in Rivers’ first speech to be presented as verse—which might indicate a heightened tone as he realizes he has been imprisoned—the prose structure also reflects his disordered confusion and reflects his sudden loss of status. This moment of realization also appears in Baldwin’s poem in : How so, quoth I, the dukes are gone their ways? / Th’have barred the gates, and borne away the keys (see How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned). chamberlain Attendant at a nobleman’s bedchamber ( chamberlain, n.1.a). No character has this name in the dramatis personae; it refers to either an unseen servant of the Host’s house or an unspecified attendant to Rivers. Rivers seems … off-stage Rivers sees Richard and Buckingham off-stage before the audience does. Rivers would likely look out of an opening in the upper stage, as Richard and Gloucester enter on the stage below. salute Pay respects to ( salute, v.3). envy Dislike, disapprove of ( envy, v.2.a). Good morrow Rivers calls off-stage to attract Richard and Buckingham, thus lowering his status by appealing for aid. His immediate use of Richard’s new title demonstrates his humility and reflects the corresponding moment from More: Rivers determined, upon the surety of his own conscience, to go boldly to them and inquire what this matter might mean (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). our good cheer Our excellent food and drink, as well as pleasant company. Richard, Buckingham, and Rivers dined together the previous night, as Baldwin notes in The Mirror for Magistrates: They supped with me, propounding friendly talk / Of our affairs, still giving me the praise: / And ever among the cups to me ward walk: / I drink to you, good coz, each traitor says: / Our banquet done, when they should go their ways, / They took their leave, oft wishing me good night, / As heartily as any creature might. (see How Sir Anthony Woodville was Imprisoned) agèd head Rivers was a little more than a decade older than Richard. This insult carries the secondary meaning of a man attached to the former generation, thus behind the times. Like Judas Richard associates Rivers’ place at their table with Judas Iscariot at the last supper: Then Judas which betrayed him, answered, and said, Is it I, master? He said unto him, Thou hast said it (GNV, Matthew 26:25). Like Judas … laugh As Richard becomes more poetic in his condemnation of Rivers and all traitors, he switches for these eight lines into rhyming couplets. thou admitted wast You were invited. heavens … ills God stopped you from harming us. in this plight In this peril: locked inside his chamber. Griev’st thou Are you dismayed, upset. sway Have influence, or control ( sway, n.I.5). he was He who was the man nominated. to make … away? To murder us? ringleader Chief author, first beginner, headman (Thomas, Princeps). must … realm Richard accuses Rivers of wanting to influence the young king and the nation, a role which would necessitate Richard’s removal. Nay, overboard … helm Through nautical language, Richard positions himself as a captain who guides the ship of the realm, removes disloyal shipmates, and revels in his ability to steer policy. weed you … roots Remove you individually like nuisance plants, destroy you like worthless husks of threshed grain ( chaff, n.1.a), I’ll tear ( rend, v.1.a) your family out so thoroughly you cannot recover. This second set of metaphors turns agricultural. Richard identifies traitors as weeds in England’s garden which must be taken, destroyed like worthless chaff, and swears to tear up Rivers’s family by the very roots. The use of the word stock holds multiple meanings in this context: Richard allies them with a useless tree stump ( stock, n.I.1a) to be torn up, but also threatens Rivers’s bloodline, as in farming, stock evokes the seeds (and animals) to breed the next year’s crop and plan for the future. This also links to the meaning of family (see ), line of descent ( stock, n.I.3a), and to tree imagery used by Shore’s wife (see ). that yet … laugh Which still mocks at me while the family remains alive. Alas good … been These lines are set as verse in Q, but do not scan. Up until this point, Rivers speaks in prose; by continuing in prose, Rivers humbles himself before choosing to match Richard’s heightened verse speech in reaction to Richard’s dismissal. my prince Edward V, the young king. exclaim … sort Cry out so loudly in this manner. false report Rumor, innuendo. proudest … crew Bravest member of your retinue. Rivers attempts to ingratiate himself by echoing Richard’s maritime imagery, to limited effect. numb Lacking feeling or sensation ( numb, adj.1.b) but exaggeratedly due to the feebleness of his age. his tongue … young He brags and negotiates as if he were a younger man. Whenas Seeing that, inasmuch as ( whenas, adv.2.a). packing Setting, pricking of cards, essentially, cheating (Florio, Interzamento). Upbraid Reproach, reprove, censure ( upbraid, v.I.2.a). Upbraid you … run As Rivers defends himself, he heightens his speech into rhyming couplets to echo the strategy Richard used to accuse him. Aside from an abcb sequence, this section is an extended run of couplets (see ). to your grace Against Richard. I record I remember, I recall ( record, v.II.4.a). progeny Family, issue ( progeny, n.1.a). Rivers also defends his family’s reputation. glass A magic mirror, a crystal, used in magic art ( glass, n.II.9.a). Staring into such a magic mirror was said to allow users to see the past or the future. France … Irish … Scotland Rivers was a well-decorated soldier: serving in Brittany in 1472, with Edward’s invasion of France in 1475, and was one of the principal commanders in Gloucester’s successful 1482 campaign in Scotland (Hicks). Rivers’s proximity to Richard in the Scottish campaign perhaps offers eyewitness evidence to support this isolated claim that Richard cowardly avoided scars in battle. There is no evidence to suggest that Rivers or Gloucester served in Ireland, but during his lifetime the primary English military intervention in Ireland comprised the defense of The Pale, the English-controlled area that surrounded Dublin. When thou … rust This is Rivers’s first loss of control. He insults Richard for what he believes is cowardice in war, as evidenced by his lack of injuries and rusty armor. There is no evidence Richard avoided war, and his reported valor at Bosworth directly contradicts this statement (Horrox). The image of Richard’s rusted armor is echoed in Shakespeare (see 3.5.1.s.d.). far … kin Irrelevant to old biases or familial relationships. Rivers notes they swore fidelity to Edward IV without concern to past enmity, but now Richard appears to cast judgment based on old rancor. the oath Rivers was not present at Edward’s death, and Richard swore no oath there. This oath is a secondhand report, not a witnessed event. The reference is to Edward’s deathbed suggests the dying king’s plea that Dorset and Hastings be unto the young king as you have been to me (see ). our prince’s King Edward IV’s. now Boswell added the word not to this line because he believed that neither the meaning nor the verse scanned properly without it. However, Rivers certainly takes the opportunity to speak his mind, and a slight revision in But time permits now nevertheless to tell thee all my mind scans as a fourteen-syllable line. tell … mind Speak plainly to you. for fear Because others are afraid of your violence and intimidation. Let commons … hand Let the people or citizens decide what they want. Rivers warns treason against the young king will not stand. whom Commons, common people, citizens. in words … you In language as eloquent as yours. My lords … quail This line sequence has been adjusted to maintain the rhyme structure in context: the internal abcb rhyme emerges with this rearrangement and helps with the clarity of the speech. set to sale Open to all, expose for scrutiny ( sale, n.2.a). faith … prince A reminder that Richard accuses Rivers of treason against the young king, not simply of enmity to Richard and Buckingham. In this sense, Rivers is entitled to indignation. quail Waste away, decline, wither ( quail, v.I.1). none … can do If no one can show proof. protector This phrase is certainly spoken cynically, given how Rivers judges Richard. Rivers now openly questions the efficacy of Richard’s protection. injur’st Slander, insult ( injure, v.2). as judges … are You will condemn me here and now, with an emphasis on the illegality of their proceedings. taking no remorse Allowing no pity, compassion ( remorse, n.5) to extenuate the case. law. In justice Tried fairly by the laws of the land. cooling card Words to dampen passion or enthusiasm ( cooling, adj.1). fast Trapped, fixed, under control ( fast v.1.1a). cut him off Stop his mouth, prevent him from speaking. Injurious Willfully wrong, harmful ( injurious, adj.1). I hardly … given I can barely stand to listen to these accusations you have made. with my … touch Now that my integrity has been called into question. thy ruth Your contrition, repentance; remorse ( ruth, n.2). Officers … Rivers Q gives no stage direction to indicate officers enter to arrest Rivers, but given that he begins the scene locked behind a door, and Richard then makes specific reference to where he should be taken after he exits, officers must be in his train. Potentially, they could accompany Richard and Buckingham at the beginning of this scene, and stand silently as a sign of intimidation. The officers in the train offer security, particularly since the jostling episode with Grey in the following scene. Pomfret Castle A contemporary elision of Pontefract Castle, Wakefield, where Rivers and Grey were held and executed. secretly Out of sight. as you … deal Await my command on how you should proceed. garrison Troop of soldiers ( garrison, n.4.a): the group Buckingham mustered from the Marches of Wales. band The numbers in a band of soldiers is unclear, but as the term is used in scripture: Then the soldiers of the governor took Jesus into the common hall, and gathered about him the whole band (GNV, Matthew 27:27), this would equate to a cohort of 400–600 soldiers. Richard takes no chances Rivers may be freed. common jail Rivers is not sent to the relative comfort of the Tower of London, but the notorious underground dungeons at Pontefract. I know … mind I know what you plan to do. God bless … protect Prayer for his half-brothers: Rivers had only one illegitimate child of his own; the children he prays to protect and bless are the princes in the Tower. Characterizing these as figures he leaves behind indicates the protector’s role he has assumed in lieu of Richard. marks Targets an archer aims at ( mark, n.VI.23.a). Dorset uses similar imagery with Hastings (see ). rid … right Deprive them of their inheritance. Farewell, sweet England Rivers is only transported some 150 miles further north, but knowing Pontefract’s bloody reputation, he embraces his likely death. leads the way Rivers physically takes charge and exits with some dignity. His acceptance of death presages he will be first in a procession of deaths at Richard’s hand. This short line indicates Rivers’s strength and stoicism, and suggests an actor’s pause at its end. thrall Bondage, servitude, captivity ( thrall, n.I.1.a). fear them Fear for them. be sure Surely. Rivers also warns that Richard take note because the injustice meted out to him will eventually find and punish his captors. hoist … serves Make the most of this momentum (Tilley S23). See also make hay while the sun shines. A return to nautical imagery, as Richard looks to take advantage of Rivers’s capture before his confederates discover the trick. hot beginning Passionate first attack ( hot, adv.2). straightly Directly, immediately ( straightly, adv.2). laid close Watched and guarded by soldiers; originally a nautical term: maneuvered one’s ship alongside (another) for the purpose of boarding or fighting ( lay, v.I.5.b and v.II.11.b). In terms of a highway, the implication is preparation for ambush. suffered Compelled, forced, persuaded ( suffer, v.I.8). pretense An assertion of a right, title, a claim ( pretense, n.1.a). bewrayed Exposed, discovered, revealed ( bewray, v.6). shoot him through Kill him. Presumably Richard believes any who resist the lord protector’s authority is an enemy worthy of execution. post-horse A fast horse kept for messengers and travelers ( post-horse, n.1). Stony Stratford A small town in Buckinghamshire where Edward V rested the night before arriving in London for his coronation. such grace Such a prayer or blessing before dinner. Metaphorically, Richard plans to ingratiate himself with the young king and his retinue, rather than immediately make further arrests. discomfort Dismay, upset ( discomfort, v.1). heaviness Displeasure, anger ( heaviness, n.1.c). so great … grace As important a responsibility as the young king represents. cannot hear Have not heard. at some words Having an angry, contentious argument (, word, n.I.9.a). fear Feel apprehensive. The optimistic young king has much to feel apprehensive about: not only does he mourn his father’s death and feels nervous about his coronation and new responsibility, but he has clearly noticed his uncles on both sides of his family squabbling and maneuvering. sweet … grape Young wine from a superior grape. Grey feels fortified by the young king’s words, which he claims would revive a man half-dead. of such … prince From a prince of your quality. careless … soever Unconcerned about bad luck or accidents, no matter their peril. likelihoods Probabilities, reports. Richard commanded the roads be guarded closely to prevent messengers, but as Haute knows of Buckingham they were clearly spotted. not … far Will soon be here. entertain Receive, host ( entertain, v.III.6.a). courtesy Hospitality, politeness ( courtesy, n.1.b). prince’s … own Haute is aware of the sensitivity of this visit and urges Grey to offer Richard kindness to ensure their own safety and a smooth coronation. hardly With great difficulty ( hardly, adv.5.b); but also, cued by quick repetition (see ) to contrasting meaning of severely, unfairly ( hardly, adv.3). merry countenance Happy demeanor, pleasant show. courtesy The young king repeats the term as the way Richard should be treated, reversed to consider Richard’s appearance as a courtesy to his nephew’s new status (see ). have made haste Have arrived in a swift fashion (Thomas, Cĕlĕro). looked … yet Did not expect you so soon. humble duty Richard offers deference to the young king, necessary before he can separate his rival from Grey and the remainder of his retinue. redouble Reflect, re-echo ( redouble, v.III.9.a). on afore Go ahead in advance of the main group ( afore, adv.1). keep your rooms Go to your chambers. Quoted from More’s description of this moment: go afore, gentlemen and yeomen, keep your rooms (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). There is no indication that the train actually exits, because of Grey’s and Buckingham’s scuffle and the swift arrests of the Woodvilles. Buckingham … Grey The deliberateness of Buckingham’s accusation makes it more reasonable to believe he is the aggressor here, and justifies the officer remaining on stage after they have been ordered to their rooms. Buckingham’s action has historical precedent (as noted by Churchill, 405), recorded by Hall that there within the kynges presence they picked a quarel to the lord Richard Grey (349). The tenor of the scene changes significantly from this point, heightening the danger for the Woodvilles. Alternately, an actors’ choice could be to set Grey as the aggressor, which would indicate his disdain for Richard’s faction, but this sets Buckingham as the victim in the exchange and justifies his reaction. In any case, the jostle draws the lines of enmity between the factions, and by claiming self-defense in front of the young King, Buckingham has set the next phase of Richard’s plan in motion. jostle Collide with, push, shove ( jostle, v.I.2.a). more than needs Uncalled for. inward envy Hidden enmity, unspoken hatred. Richard uses a term which Rivers has just professed to himself, which confirms Richard’s accusation (see ). will burst out Richard calls on Grey’s undisguised animosity as an excuse to question his integrity and to position himself and Buckingham as more reliable advisors to the king. the king’s blood Blood relative of the king. Grey is also of the king’s blood, as his half-brother, but Richard emphasizes his nearer blood connection. rubbed Irritated, agitated ( rubbed, adj.2). venomous rashness Injurious ( venomous, adj.1) recklessness ( rashness, n.1). venomous sore Festering wound. Repetition emphasizes his feelings, making it clear to the audience and the characters present that battle lines are being drawn, and that niceties have been abandoned (see ). remove … flesh Cutting away gangrene. Richard likens the Woodvilles to a gangrenous limb best removed before the rest of the body is poisoned. dislike thy abuse Object to your behavior. combat Duel for satisfaction of my honor. an it … grace If it please the king. attach Take custody of ( attach, v.1). conveyed … Scots Redirected funds from the treasury to Scottish factions allied to England. More reports Grey was accused, along with Dorset and Rivers, of having: entered into the Tower of London, and thence taken out the king’s treasure, and sent men to the sea. All which things, these dukes wist well, were done for good purposes and necessary by the whole council at London. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) In the aftermath of the 1482 capture of Berwick-upon Tweed (in Northumberland, as opposed to North Berwick in Fife, Scotland), the English-funded support of the Duke of Albany arose as a sticking point politically, even though Richard was directly involved. Churchill questions whether Grey could possibly have been involved in this scheme (431). currying favor Ingratiating yourself, seeking preferment ( curry, v.5.b). thinks … hid Wants to cover it up. authority Like a power of attorney, a legal tool to govern and make decisions for (protect) a minor or unfit adult. The movement of the young king without Richard’s presence undermined the protector, which he remedied by intercepting the train. in the … you Regardless of the things you do against me. competitor Confederate, partner, associate ( competitor, n.2). till … place Until we have time to hold a formal trial. However, Rivers and Grey were convicted without trial. general … you all The distribution of these funds to the Scots was agreed upon by the privy council, a fact Richard conveniently omits. hands … discharge Signatures as proof of the execution of my duty in delivering the funds ( discharge, v.3.a). yet as … right Legal only if your accusations were true. presumption Confidence, arrogance ( presumption, n.1). secretly Richard uses the same term to describe the arrest of Rivers (see ). coronation Richard is unclear about whose coronation he means: the young king may presume his own, but to his arrested uncles, they may wonder whether Richard means his own. The audience may also interpret this to mean Richard’s. This is yet again a hot issue on the stage and foments the king’s outburst, creating a dramatic stage picture. consent Agreement, authority ( consent, n.4). The trump card that Richard holds is that as Protector, he is responsible for a minor who has no legal status to consent, so in effect, the young king’s consent is dictated by Richard. Again, this triggering word will elicit different reactions from the assembled lords: some of sympathy, some admiring his courage, some annoyed by his prattle. As the idealistic young king speaks, the body language and reactions of the older men with him will speak volumes to the audience. loving kindred These accusations are a clear surprise to the young king, who has only seen his family members as a positive influence. give aim at Stand idly by ( aim, n.P.2). Field notes that to give aim was to stand within a convenient distance from the butts, to inform the archers how near their arrows fell to the mark (Field 27). Ah, Edward … rule In Edward’s first crisis of policy, he wishes either for early death or more time to grow up and learn to make such decisions, a response which emphasizes his youth. Edward The young king. enjoy my kingdom Take advantage of being king. entreat Plead, beg, intercede ( entreat, v.II.7.a). for all … own I cannot speak for the other Woodvilles, but in regard to Lord Grey, why would he need to steal money, when he has a great deal of his own wealth? perilous Terrible, formidable ( perilous, adj.2). promotion … equals Preferment instead of others equally deserving; or advancement to greater responsibility over his peers, or over other peers. However, Richard disputes Grey as a real peer or lord of ancient heritage. his betters Those more highly ranked than he, from an older peerage. Even though Grey is son to the Mother Queen, she herself is not of royal blood. Richard again undermines Grey’s status as a peer, seeing him as a social-climber or power-seeker. secrecy Hidden information, conspiracy. subtle Deceptive, crafty, treacherous ( subtle, adj.I.2.a). babes … child Two open references to the young king’s inexperience and youth; Richard therefore sees him as unqualified to speak on policy. use you as Treat you like. consult … matters Have discussions and make decisions about important topics. prejudicial Disadvantageous, harmful ( prejudicial, adj.1.a). determination Settlement of the matter ( determination, n.2.a). just recompense Reasonable satisfaction, reparation ( recompense, n.1). true subject Loyal adherent. I having … father Richard trumps the young king’s protest by relying on the trust Edward IV placed in him. as … good To the extent I think appropriate. Ay me, … king The young king refers to himself. warrant Guarantee ( warrant, v.3.a). answer … disgrace Grey is confident this injustice will be reversed, and Richard will be punished. untimely Premature, ill-timed ( untimely, adj.1.d). an’t If it. by the way On the journey. trusty Reliable, trustworthy ( trusty, adj.2.a). about you To attend on you. parley Negotiation, conversation ( parley, n.1.a). Richard Richard’s final line co-opts Buckingham’s proclamation of Edward V to claim his own kingship. His aside connects with the audience and shares his satisfaction that all major obstacles have fallen away. Here Richard plays the righteous uncle in earshot of the other characters on stage, but gleefully shares his delight with the audience. May … grace A deferential phrase spoken on seven occasions throughout this play, always in the tone of placation or inquisition. Of these seven, three instances occur in this scene, all spoken (see ) to the Mother Queen within 20 lines (see ), which indicates the Mother Queen’s agitation. Three of the other uses are spoken in fear to Richard. show to Share with. copartners Equals, sharers ( copartner, n.3). expect … dead Look forward, not backwards (proverbial, Tilley D126). Elizabeth’s philosophy on grief has little effect on the Mother Queen but will be perceptive as they discover more family members murdered. estate State or condition in general, whether physical, mental, moral ( estate, n.I.1.a). esteem and regard Love and care for. when I … dreadful The Mother Queen acknowledges she is beset by nightmares of a desolate future. Shakespeare uses dream imagery for Richard prior to battle (see 5.4.88.s.d.-5.4.156). league broken Compact or pledge disregarded. like importance Equal prominence. aged Elizabeth Woodville was 36 when Edward died, old for her era and especially in comparison to her children. While this seems unusually cruel and hyperbolic to see a woman of 36 call herself aged, in the early modern era, she would have been considered older than she would today. Very few women, except for the wealthy and pampered (such as Elizabeth I and Bess of Hardwick) lived beyond childbearing years into menopause or post-menopause. disgraced Shamed, eclipsed ( disgrace, v.2.a). The Mother Queen puns on being called your grace to highlight her awareness that her authority as a royal mother has been destroyed. bishop’s palace The now-traditional seat of the archbishop of York, Fulham Castle, was not so designated until the eighteenth century. York’s seat at this time was Cawood Castle in West Yorkshire, which served as Thomas Rotherham’s home and is recorded to have hosted Richard of Gloucester, but this castle is nowhere near London. This palace is York Place, the archbishop’s London residence, which was acquired by Henry VIII in 1530 and incorporated into the palace at Whitehall. which … well Who clearly have his best interests at heart. archbishop In Q speech headings, the archbishop of York is called Cardinal. While this is a valid title for some archbishops, it was not accurate for Thomas Rotherham, then archbishop of York. Greg persuasively suggests the archbishop has been mistaken for the archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal Bourchier (1929, xi); I have emended all SD references to the cardinal. heavy news Anticipated sorrow. Having heard of Rivers and Grey, the Mother Queen’s next logical conclusion is that her son has been murdered. Draw home Draw back your bow to let your arrow fly. The first of three archery references in quick succession (see ). hit the mark Come to the point (archery). A happy … by The Mother Queen’s third archery reference: an opportune gust of wind to redirect the flight of an arrow is a stroke of good luck. Links to the mark, or target, which she assumes is the death of her son, but happy luck has spared him (see ). one letter This letter is not the same one the archbishop speaks of later (see ). longs Desires, yearns, wishes ( long, v.II.6.a). Content … be so The archbishop’s tone turns from request to command at this point, which offers the actor choice about whether this task is difficult for the archbishop, or if he truly believes Richard’s intentions good. thee among … enterprise The Mother Queen’s shock over the archbishop’s inclusion in the plot shows her canniness, knowing her trust in his office normally would be convincing enough. The betrayal here is palpable. bedfellow Companion, friend (Thomas, Sŏcia). At this time, bedsharing was common from poor to elite families, even for strangers in inns, because beds were in short supply, and in an age of uninsulated homes and scarcity of firewood, two or more to a bed was warmer. The idea of privacy was not yet fully developed. miscarry Be lost, perish, die (Thomas, Pĕreo). laid … charge Fall on my conscience. drifts Aims, intentions ( drift, v.5). pretend Offer, propose ( pretend, v.2.a). tomorrow In this timeline, the young king’s coronation is the next day, and re-assures the Mother Queen that their absence will be short. Historically, after Edward V entered London on 4 May 1483 the coronation was postponed to 22 June. He was joined by the duke of York on 16 June; the boys were rarely heard from again after Richard was crowned on July 6. Italian Friar Dominic Mancini wrote in the summer of 1483 that the boys were held in inner apartments of the Tower that summer, and day by day began to be seen more rarely behind the bars and windows (113). Edward V was regularly attended by a doctor who ministered to him as one who expected death. By the end of that summer, the boys vanished from sight, assumed murdered. Upon my honor Spoken to the Mother Queen to demonstrate his helplessness in this matter; the archbishop’s message is no request but a command. ambushed nobles Concealed, waiting ( ambushed, adj.2) group of men. McMillin and MacLean note the silently amassed ambushing nobles, wherein no stage direction reveals this silent ambush, but it is clearly in place and visible by the time the Archbishop changes his tone (131). by fair means With free will, without complaint. Enter Catesby … armed The entry of these threatening men justifies the Mother Queen’s expression of fright for herself and her children. She is probably hiding her children behind her at this point. break sanctuary Granted sanctuary at Westminster Abbey, the Mother Queen is right to be shocked that Richard disregards the law which allowed her up to 40 unmolested days (or even potentially an indefinite period) under sanctuary clauses set out in English common law. Richard’s use of the archbishop to invite the Duke of York from sanctuary demonstrates his awareness of the optics of violating this trust. rebels Those unwilling to pay homage to the rightful king ( rebel, adj.1.a). you shall rather You are going to have to. Why, madam, … sanctuary? An insulting question from an archbishop, who is supposed to be the one to offer sanctuary without question. His hypocrisy, invisible to young York, is obvious to the Mother Queen and probably to Elizabeth as well. high time Not a moment too soon ( high, adj.III.16.a). trow Believe, trust ( trow, v.1.a). heavy case Sad state of affairs. where cutthroats, … be Sanctuary was often used (and abused) by common criminals, who claimed sanctuary but continued committing crimes under its protection. The Mother Queen’s claim against persecution is the reason sanctuary existed at the time. The provision was gradually eroded in scope until it was abolished entirely in 1624 by King James I. bankrupts Persons unable to pay their debts ( bankrupt, n.I.1.b). If … persuade you The archbishop tries once more to convince the Mother Queen to let the boy go freely, because he sees the potential damage Richard may do. Hold, take … come These lines are rendered as prose in Q even though they can be read as a rhyming couplet as the archbishop leaves. Given that the archbishop and duke of York speak in a brief couplet above, the verse reading here is an appropriate exit line at a moment of heightened emotion (see ). have done Come to an agreement, made an end, concluded ( do, v.I.10.b). Catesby It might appear unusual for Catesby to serve the archbishop, but he likely appears as insurance to make certain that the task is completed. Greg suggests that Messenger and Catesby were doubled (1929, xii), and McMillin and MacLean propose that it was not necessarily Catesby that appears here, but a nameless Messenger character played by the same actor: a scribe listening to dictation would have had to think for himself which of an actor’s several roles was not being spoken, and it seems virtually certain that he would sometimes get things wrong: Catesby one minute, a Messenger the next. (117) Regardless, Catesby’s presence here is logical enough to retain. come … company Here to accompany you to your brother. Exeunt omnes As the group exits the stage, the armed guard accompanies the young Duke of York, along with the messenger, and archbishop. four watchmen These men are introduced but stage directions are not given to provide them any explicit direction. McMillin and MacLean argue the watchmen carry out the actions as the Page describes them: his narration is co-ordinated with a mime of the ruffians gathering on-stage, hearing their signal see and breaking into the Court see (off-stage) and then re-entering (as other officers see ) with Hastings in their grasp. The staging suggests the slickness of Richard’s machinery. Committing the act is no more difficult than the Page’s naming of it, and there is no delay. The well-oiled machine works quietly, and there is no place it cannot reach. (132) Why, … lord The Page, here a traditional chorus figure, confides in the audience and offers insight into off-stage activities. References to Dr. Shaw and the public display at Baynard’s Castle places emphasis on how Richard achieves power through his manipulation of language and spectacle (Walsh 85) as he invites the audience to see through the façade. The historical detail that the Page recounts is often out of order, much of which occurred after Hastings’ death, not before it. keeping company Spending time with such people. am I … company A return to the Page’s doubtful speech, with fear his association with morally corrupt figures will lead to his downfall (see ). Given the opportunity to please Richard, however, the Page’s doubts seem to recede (see ). by that means By the same devious methods. instead … head Another reversal: the Page wishes the guilt for those executed (headless, beheaded) to settle (light) on Gloucester. Tasked with the play’s dirty work, the Page is openly concerned about his responsibility for any damage done. made … match Challenged a superior opponent; bitten off more than he can chew. blood … threatener Based on proverbial blood will have blood (Tilley B458); killing menaces the killer with retribution. makes havoc Brings devastation, destruction ( havoc, n.2). secretly … death Rivers and Grey were executed on 25 June 1483, days after the princes were secured, and two weeks prior to Richard’s coronation (Hicks). That they died at Pontefract rather than formally charged and beheaded at the Tower denotes Richard’s priority for expedience. but mistrusteth Even slightly doubts to be loyal. hinderer Obstructer, impeder ( hinderer, n.1). proceedings Course of action ( proceeding, n.2.b). clapped up Locked up, held. Q gives chopt up, a vivid image to imply mutilation of traitors’ bodies in prison, as Rivers and Grey have suffered. While this chopped image may imply gross brutality and slaughter of dissenters, this meaning is patently ahistorical. Some of Richard’s enemies were executed, but to intimate mass slaughter is another thing. Field’s conjecture is far more palatable and implies the detention of opponents rather than their wholesale deaths. This reading depends on an implied compositor’s error, mistaking a la for a ho, an understandable error when reading secretary hand. The sense of the line is far clearer with Field’s reading. being but mistrusted Having done no more than seem untrustworthy. Oxford joined with Clarence as traitors against Edward IV, so his arrest was prudent, and particularly justified in Oxford’s later escape and defection to Richmond. Hammes Castle A now-demolished English fortress that lay to the south of Calais. Historically, Oxford was a prisoner of Edward IV in Hammes Castle from 1475; he attempted escape at least once. Fearing his influence, Richard III ordered his return to the Tower in October 1483, but with his gaoler, Sir James Blount, he escaped to Richmond. Doctor Shaw Brother to Lord Mayor Edmund Shaw (Shaa), this refers to Doctor of Theology, Ralph Shaw, who preached a poorly-received sermon espousing Richard’s claim to the throne (Tucker). Paul’s Cross An open-air pulpit near old St. Paul’s Cathedral. Preachers delivered sermons at St. Paul’s Cross, and public officials (such as bailiffs) conducted public shaming (including that of Shore’s wife). The original St. Paul’s Cross was destroyed in 1643 during the English Civil War and was replaced with a Baroque sculpture of St. Paul in the early 20th Century. lord … aldermen More recounts: Then on the morrow after, the mayor with all the aldermen and chief commoners of the city, in their best manner appareled, assembling themself together, resorted unto Baynard’s Castle where the protector lay. To which place repaired also, according to their appointment, the duke of Buckingham with divers noble men with him, besides many knights and other gentlemen. And thereupon, the duke sent word unto the lord protector of the being there of a great and honorable company to move a great matter unto his grace. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) Baynard’s Castle Richard staged his wooing at Baynard’s Castle purposefully. His brother, Edward IV was crowned there, and being only a short distance from St. Paul’s, it was near to where his pro-Richard sermons were preached. The castle was destroyed in the Great Fire of London. Shakespeare also makes note of Baynard’s Castle as the setting for Richard’s wooing, as a landmark familiar to London audiences and important for its strategic location. whole … upon him Entire kingdom under his influence. he refused Richard’s repeated refusal is dramatized in Shakespeare (see 3.7.95–244) and discussed in More: When the protector had heard the proposition, he looked very strangely thereat and answered that all were it that he partly knew the things by them alleged to be true, yet such entire love he bear unto king Edward and his children, that so much more regarded his honor in other realms about than the crown of any one, of which he was never desirous, that he could not find in his heart in this point to incline to their desire. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) faintly Feignedly, deceitfully ( faintly, adv.1). gone about it Taken up the cause; ready to argue the merits of the case. Guildhall Equivalent to city hall; the hall of the Corporation of the City of London, used for municipal meetings, state banquets, etc. ( guild-hall, n.1). Buckingham approached council at Guildhall with a retinue of knights and supporters to build Richard’s support. More records Buckingham’s speech, which was received stonily and prompted Buckingham to comment on marvelous obstinate silence (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). Consensus was reached only after several attempts. The timeline of Baynard’s Castle and Guildhall are here reversed. content thee Do not worry. warned Summoned, commanded ( warn, v.II.7.a). suffer Tolerate. partaker Sharer, participant ( partaker, n.1). mislike Dissension ( mislike, n.4), disagreement, perhaps violent. cast away Overthrown, ruined ( cast, v.III.18.a). my friend’s Catesby had a long association with Hastings, from his time as a young lawyer in the Inner Temple. Their professional and personal friendship was primary in the decision to send Catesby to sound Hastings out (Horrox). Catesby discards his old friendship for Richard’s. a long sleeper One who sleeps too much, now considered a symptom of depression; metaphorically. Richard describes himself as having a dull eye or ignoring certain signs of political unrest. It is in Richard’s best tactical interests that his enemies believe him to be moving slowly or unwarily, but it is highly unlikely that on such an important day that he overslept. This questionable detail about Richard’s sleep is repeated in More: These lords so sitting together commoning of this matter, the protector came in among them, first about nine of the clock, saluting them courteously, and excusing himself that he had been from them so long, saying merrily that he had been asleep that day. (Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) Shakespeare uses the phrase a long sleeper: My noble lords and cousins all, good morrow, / I have been long a sleeper (see 2.4.23). Later, however, the Page notes that some believe Richard lieth never long enough abed, so it is made clear that this is a brazen ruse (see ). appointed Authorized, charged ( appointed, adj.2). give diligent … upon Are awaiting his pleasure to see them. thy weapons To call his allies to arms shows Richard expects a fight. We can assume the call to weapons includes the Page’s watchmen. his grace … abed The Page questions Richard’s claim for oversleeping, as a man too cunning to be so careless, to highlight the fact that Richard manipulates council (see ). diverse of Different opinions expressed by ( diverse, adj.1.a). their best caps Their heads. Here, Lord Stanley is one of Richard’s likely future victims; Richard later uses him as a useful pawn over Stanley’s step-son, Richmond. ruffians Villains, criminals, thugs ( ruffian, n.1). board Table. let slip Give a hint about what is about to happen. Let this suffice He has been beaten enough. Richard’s need to call off the men who are violently pulling Hastings into the room suggests a striking, violent stage picture, where Hastings has chosen to fight his arrest. sorceress, … Wife Richard’s accusation was audacious, but none questioned him, as More notes: Then said the protector: Ye shall all see in what wise that sorceress and that other witch of her counsel, Shore’s wife, with their affinity, have by their sorcery and witchcraft wasted my body. And therewith, he plucked up his doublet sleeve to his elbow upon his left arm, where he showed a wearish, withered arm and small, as if it was never other. And thereupon every man’s mind sore misgave them, well perceiving that this matter was but a quarrel, for well they wist that the queen was too wise to go about any such folly. And also if she would, yet would she of all folk least make Shore’s wife of council, whom of all women she most hated, as that concubine whom the king her husband had most loved. And also no man was there present but well knew that the his arm was ever such since his birth. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) famous strumpet Notorious whore. testimony Evidence ( testimony, n.1.a). If? Villain, … ands? More reports this inciting incident: What?! quod the protector. Thou servest me, I ween, with ifs and with ands. I tell thee they have so done, and that I will make good on thy body, traitor. And therewith as in a great anger, he clapped his fist upon the board a great rap. At which token given, one cried treason without the chamber. Therewith a door clapped, and in come there rushing men in harness, as many as the chamber might hold. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) Shakespeare similarly uses if as a turning point (see 3.4.3-4), as does Dolman in (see How the Lord Hastings was Betrayed). short shrift Expedient confession of sins, last rites (before death). by the … Paul Richard’s evocation is reported in More (for by Saint Paul, quod he, I will not to dinner till I see thy head off, see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) and repeated in Shakespeare (Off with his head! Now by Saint Paul I swear, / I will not dine until I see the same, see 3.4.75–76). Such pious phrasing highlights his audacity. Sir Thomas Sir Thomas Brakenbury, lieutenant of the Tower. Sir Thomas is an ally to Richard who appears later, but is first used here as an arresting officer in addition to the four watchmen (see ). There is argument to be made that Richard refers to Sir Thomas Stanley, as he evokes his name in the following line, but if this were the case, it would be the only point where Stanley is so mentioned (see ). Logically, Brakenbury is the likely commander. suffer … speak Don’t let him utter a word. his broke head A bloodied scalp, or face, or a bruise from a blow. There has been a struggle off-stage, and Hastings is brought in with an injury that Richard claims responsibility for. While Richard claims responsibility for Hastings’ injury, More records another option: And another let fly at the lord Stanley, which shrunk at the stroke and fell under the table, or else his head had been cleft to the teeth; for as shortly as he shrank, yet ran the blood about his ears. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) More is the first to note Stanley’s injury at the council, a likely embellishment for the benefit of his descendant Lord Strange, Ferdinando Stanley (Manley and MacLean 26). Stanley was not noted at the council prior to More and Vergil (Vergil 182), but does feature in Dolman’s poem in The Mirror for Magistrates, where his injury is also noted: Laying at lord Stanley, whose brain he had surely cleft, / Had he not down beneath the table crept (see How the Lord Hastings was Betrayed). excuse Prevent his arrest. presently Immediately, instantly ( presently, adv.1.a). herald of arms Officer with the duty of royal proclamations ( herald, n.1.a). conspiring by witchcraft The chief recorded charge against Hastings. The proclamation following Hastings’s death was so detailed it aroused suspicion, as More notes: Now was this proclamation made within two hours after that he was beheaded, and it was so curiously indited and so fair written in parchment in so well a set hand, and therewith of itself so long a process, that every child might well perceive that it was prepared before. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) listen after Look to hear about. success … duke Buckingham’s attempts to persuade the mayor and other councilors were poorly received, but necessary to endorse Richard as a preferable king. nearer the mark Closer to our goal. Another repeated archery reference (see ; ): Richard notes they inch closer to their goal against fewer competitors. look … friend After Hastings’s execution, Catesby was elevated to chancellor of the exchequer and the speaker of the house of commons (Horrox). thy business The task I have set for you. undone Destroyed, ruined ( undone, adj.1). grieves … rest Richard’s grief over his nephews appears feigned as he feels out the Page. Once disinherited, the princes in the Tower posed little threat beyond figurehead status for future rebels. Richard’s decision to kill them is here positioned as a heartbreaking dilemma and offers an actor’s choice if whether the grief played as sincere or not. of more … rest The fate of the young princes in the Tower. Shakespeare similarly dramatizes this dilemma: Ha! Am I king? Tis so, but Edward lives (see 4.2.14). Without this, his other crimes are for nothing. man While the role of a page may appear to be a boy’s job, it was a kind of apprenticeship that could be held by a youth roughly between the ages of 12 and 22. The Page’s self-reference suggests he is old enough to consider himself a man and wishes for Richard to see him as one. The Page’s age in turn impacts the dynamic between the two, and his ongoing political savviness indicates that he is likely in the later years of his apprenticeship, engendering Richard’s reliance on his presence. willingness Positive disposition to serve ( willingness, n.1). reacheth the stars Is far beyond your ability. Richard doubts the Page able to commit such a crime. good liking Esteem, trust. the state The court, the kingdom ( state, n.II.ii.22.b). Richmond uses this term twice to describe his conquest (see ), including his final line (see ). choke … gifts Overwhelm murderers with rewards. He demonstrates eagerness to be held in high esteem but with distance to protect himself. man Richard picks up on the Page’s desire to be seen as a man beyond his duties. Richard takes the word man to mean servant while the Page identifies it as a sign of maturity having reached an age of responsibility. A youth cannot be held responsible in the same way as an adult. I care … thee Richard’s reluctance to say the words even to his page betrays the magnitude of his decision, but also speaks to his mistrust of all, inciting open treason and promoting regicide. mean a man Low-born ( mean, adj.II.2.a) a servant. Zounds By God’s wounds (mild profanity). Richard’s immediate reaction is potentially in response to the Page’s betrayal of shock or surprise. Richard is aware that such an utterance is sufficient to seal his own death for treason, so clearly the Page has reacted in such a way that he does not feel confident in his admission. ’tis out I have spoken my secret. James Tyrrell Sir James Tyrrell, son of one of the conspirators beheaded for attempting to murder Edward IV, switched to the Yorkist side and later confessed to the murders of the princes in the Tower. The Page’s recommendation of Tyrrell offers connection between this play and Shakespeare. While the Page does not appear in Shakespeare, a boy or page recommends Tyrrell (see 4.2.34–42). More reports Tyrrell’s confession and implication of one other murderer: both Denton and he were examined and confessed the murder in manner above written, but whither the bodies were removed, they could nothing tell (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). Vergil does not implicate a co-conspirator but adds some conscience and compulsion for the killer: James Tyrrell, who, being forced to do the king’s commandment, rode sorrowfully to London, and, to the worst example that hath been almost ever heard of, murdered those babes of the issue royal (see Anglia Historia). forwardness Readiness, eagerness, zeal ( forwardness, n.3). work Persuade. soon at night This evening. reputation or calling Rank, station, occupation. I dare … bound I stake my reputation. upon my credit On my honor. circumspect Cautious, careful ( circumspect, adj.2.a). diligence Officiousness, willingness to please ( diligence, n.1.b). liberal Generous, freely giving ( liberal, adj.1.a). so good … lord Richard promises generosity: an ironic claim (as he hires a man to murder children) plain to the audience and the canny Page. goods be confiscate More records: Now then, by and by, as if it were for anger and not for covetise, the protector sent into the house of Shore’s wife (for her husband dwelled not with her) and spoiled her of all that ever she had, above the value of two or three thousand marks, and sent her body to prison (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) bishop … penance The long-standing bishop of London, Thomas Kempe, was charged by Richard to apply this sentence, as More reports: And for this cause (as a goodly continent prince, clean and faultless of himself, sent out of heaven into this vicious world for the amendment of men’s manners), Richard caused the bishop of London to put her to open penance, going before the cross in procession upon a Sunday with a taper in her hand. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) open penance Public shaming as expiation. This is dramatized later (see ), and would include going before the cross in procession upon a Sunday with a taper in her hand (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). See notes below (). so bare … plague Leave her with nothing for that is what she has earned. straight proclamation Immediate announcement. none … relieve her No one may help Shore’s wife. privy spies Secret watchers. beginning … famous Rise to prominence was so much talked about. See links to Shore’s wife’s talk of fame () and Richard’s dismissal as a famous strumpet (see ). infamous above all Notoriously shameful beyond any other. His word choice famous/infamous emphasizes the depth of her fall. win … forever If the Page can successfully find a murderer, he will win Richard’s ongoing esteem, which is what the Page desires most at this point. Enter Shore’s Wife It is significant that when Shore’s wife meets three men who appear in her first scene in the play none recognize her (see ). Her physical appearance has changed dramatically from her first scene, when she was comfortably maintained by Edward IV. She has completed open penance, is dirty, cast out in her shift, potentially disfigured, and so is almost unrecognizable (see ). to the king to Edward IV. Shore’s wife is concerned about how slanders against her might affect her royal lover’s legacy. only … defame Sole stain of dishonor ( defame, n.1). Shore’s wife claims that her family honor, heretofore spotless, but now rendered void, exhibits her as a shame to the nation. Aie A wailing exclamation of resignation, surprise, regret, alarm ( aie, int.1). fair Beautiful, attractive. discipline before affection Self-control to be more valuable than lust. folly Foolishness ( folly, n.1.a). breach … suffered me William Shore appears to have been a willing cuckold, likely due for the financial preferment his wife’s associations brought. More notes William Shore was an honest citizen, young and goodly and of good substance. But forasmuch as they were coupled ere she were well ripe, she not very fervently loved for whom she never longed (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). Shore’s impotence led to annulment in 1476, and her affairs with Edward IV and Hastings carried on through Shore’s lifetime. She sees now that everyone knew she was entrapped, including her husband, because neither of them could protest against the king alone. Heywood offers a sympathetic view of the Shores in where the play makes clear that both husband and wife are victims. it bootless … prick Senseless to fight against overwhelming power, whether in nature or in the social or political hierarchy (Tilley F433). Quoting scripture: And he said, Who art thou, Lord? And the Lord said, I am Jesus whom thou persecutest: it is hard for thee to kick against pricks (GNV, Acts 9.5). hardly used Badly mistreated. which are … custody Richard has followed through with his promise to strip her of her belongings (see ). succor Help, assist ( succor, v.1.a). comfortless Destitute, helpless, having nothing ( comfortless, adj.1). constrained Forced, compelled ( constrained, adj.1). restoring … lost The first of three references to Shore’s wife’s kindnesses: Lodowick’s lands are fictional, but the focus is the inability for any of her beneficiaries to return her favor (see ). try him … anything Shore’s wife uses this exact phrase on each approach to her former friends, which establishes a cadence for her piteous appeals (see ; ). estates Statuses, positions ( estate, n.II.3.a). changest … worst As one previously attached to Hastings, Lodowick must feel exposed, but still has room to state his disbelief that good people around him seem to accept and embrace Richard despite his flaws. headless peers Executed nobles. furnish with Occupied by ( furnish, v.2.a). neither … minded Similar to complaints against the Woodvilles, this trade in half-truths against the followers of Richard slanders those in privileged positions, including Catesby, Brakenbury, and Lovell. hardly bewails Has barely had time to grieve. commons Common people, community ( commons, n.I.1.a). should be Have been. This also suggests the sense that they ought to be imprisoned, either for their safety or to prevent rebellion. imprisoned … forth again The princes’ transition from royal guests to prisoners was seamless because of the Tower’s multipurpose function. To stay in the Tower prior to happy events of state (such as a coronation or wedding) was common, and so it was simple to explain their presence. As a fortress, the Tower was essentially impossible for a prisoner to leave. But God … overthrown May God protect those on the side of right, and may the rightful heirs not be entirely wiped out. right … overthrown Those who have the true right to the crown (i.e., Richmond) may not fail. Lodowick’s editorializing on Richard’s actions is open treason, but he appears secure in solitude. Bezio notes this line as evidence that suggests the wars of the roses were a divine cleansing to pave the way for the accession of Henry VII (71). where … given Someone whom I have benefited. how innocently … witness The speed of Hastings’ execution has shocked everyone, including the heavens. Lodowick emphasizes Hastings’s goodness. relieve Help, assist. alms Charity, as food or money ( alms, n.1). chiefest … all King Edward IV. forsook Denied all knowledge of ( forsake, v.1.b), abandoned. fact Crime. spoil for villains Prey for criminals. pity thee Condescend to help you. lands … gone The shuffling of land ownership between regimes meant, were it not for Shore’s wife, Lodowick would almost certainly have lost his land. so long … little Work so hard to ask for a small amount of help. but may … she So far Lodowick has not recognized Shore’s wife. This lack of recognition, and his eventual realization, is the key theatrical moment here. Given the ragged state of Shore’s wife at this point, Lodowick may have avoided eye contact or physical interaction. The moment of recognition would be a striking shift from Shore’s wife’s first appearance, made vivid by Lodowick’s rejection and exit. Aside Lodowick discusses Shore’s wife with the audience as a cautionary tale but does not speak to her again. The proclamation means Lodowick offers not a single word after discovering her identity, despite their past. Lodowick knows the personal risk he would assume if he spoke to her and clearly protects himself. in such credit Such a favorite of. but That. there set … verse Lodowick resolves to use this matter as fodder for an epic or historical drama and demonstrates his opportunistic nature and his awareness of the tragedy he’s witnessed. It is metatheatrical and ultimately prophetic, given Shore’s wife’s appearance in this play as well as in works by Chute (1593), Drayton (1597), Heywood (1599), and Rowe (1714). Walsh suggests Lodowick’s plan reflects the content of Churchyard’s poem on Shore’s wife in The Mirror for Magistrates (87). wonderful Awe-inspiring, incredible. yet stay Not only does Lodowick give no answer, but leaves abruptly, unwilling to be seen with her. Exit Lodowick Lodowick’s exit is shifted from its Q position to here, to heighten his rejection. Shore’s wife appeals to him directly and still he chooses to shun her and gives the actor the opportunity to pause and make the decision to leave before he hurries out. adversity Misfortune (Hollyband, Adversité). have … done Is this my reward for the help I’ve given? chiefest pomp Greatest glory. pleasure … suits Do good by my friends by presenting requests. swayed the sword Shore’s wife claims great influence in her ability to make policy and convince the king to decide in her favor. bountiful Generous ( bountiful, adj.1). mindful … poor I still took time to remember the poor people. know … succor me Acknowledge our past relationship or help me. another A mute citizen. The Citizen’s companion is a prop for the Citizen to speak to in indignation against Shore’s wife. No men, … orders The Citizen gives insight into the chaos created by the death of Edward IV, and the struggle between the lord protector and the Woodville kindred. He contrasts the fear in London prior to Richard’s proclamation, a perilous state of society demonstrated by the lessening of violence in the London streets since Richard became king, and peace proclaimed with Scotland. Thames The waterway was jammed with boats ferrying back and forth, indicating great activity. thwacked with ruffians Jammed, crowded ( thwack, v.3.d) with thugs ( ruffian, n.1). frays Fights, brawls ( fray, n.3.a). peace … years This timeline is compacted: the treaty of Fotheringhay was signed 11 June 1482, prior to Edward IV’s death, as part of the English support of the Scottish pretender, Alexander, duke of Albany. This treaty saw agreement for the exchange of land and a promise for the marriage of one of Edward’s daughters to a Scottish prince, but this did not last. The six years is an exaggeration: both Hall and Holinshed list only three (Churchill 409). had … wise Should choose policy carefully. hedges … ears Be wary about what you speak, because spies are everywhere (Tilley W19). Compare Shakespeare (see 2.4.37). But here’s thou What do you do here? This could be played as a moment of recognition, or to state that she should not be begging in this place. neighbor The Citizen’s companion. arrant quean Notorious ( arrant, adj.3.a) prostitute ( quean, n.1). charity Generosity, kindness. sprig … bough A relative, or a person of the same worthless type. idle … housewife Worthless ( idle, adj.2.a) hussy ( housewife, n.2). could … acquaintance Must keep the company of. for her sake For the memory of Shore’s wife. He is happy to give money to a friend of hers, but not directly to her. somewhat Something. Lie still, purse Stay closed. Give no money. for twenty … farthing Exchanged a very large sum for a very small sum. In calculating comparison, it would take 19,200 farthings to equal 20 pounds. hard Severe. minion Worthless one ( minion, n.I.3.b); originally the darling of a powerful person (French, mignon), but later contemptuous, especially for a homosexual toy boy—here relying on the metatheatrical fact that Shore’s wife was played by a boy-actor. shame William Shore’s shame is often noted, but heavily influenced by Richard’s rhetoric. discredit Loss of reputation ( discredit, n.1). Lay … maintain you Get a job, feed yourself. choleric Irascible, hot-tempered, with an overabundance of choler or black bile ( choleric, adj.1.a). an If. The Citizen is not grateful for his son’s rescue and uses his anger about his son to justify not giving Shore’s wife anything. I would … hanged The Citizen reverses his thanks for sparing his son, which effectively removes Shore’s wife’s bargaining chip. quean Prostitute, whore ( quean, n.1). open shame Public disgrace. fact Crime. heinous Wicked, odious ( heinous, adj.1.a). pleasure me Make me feel happy. John … Lincoln John de la Pole, 1st earl of Lincoln, was Richard III’s nephew and one of his most prominent supporters. Proclamation of Lincoln as Richard’s heir was never made formally, but after the April 1484 death of Richard’s only son, Edward, Lincoln was given the lieutenantship of Ireland to strengthen him as a preferable heir to Clarence’s son Edward, earl of Warwick. Lincoln maintained status after Richard’s death but died in 1487, a rebel at the battle of Stoke. The gossip of Lincoln as Richard’s heir is due to the ambiguous nature of the succession as rumored in the streets. some says Some go so far as to say. that … all Who backed Richard in everything. Buckingham’s efforts in supporting Richard to the throne were motivated in part by promised honors and promotions, some of which were denied. Richard reneged on his promise to transfer Hastings’s property, the source of the cause of Buckingham’s malcontent. Shakespeare uses the withheld earldom of Hereford as the flashpoint (see 4.3.88), but this claim is historically inaccurate, as Buckingham had oversight over Herefordshire which was no longer an earldom (Davies). is rid Has ridden, traveled by horseback. Brecknock Castle Now known as Brecon Castle, Brecknock was controlled by Buckingham, who retired to this position to scheme against Richard. pull … usurper Overthrow the seizer of the throne without right. agree … will Reach whatever decision they want. the next … overseas I’ll take the next ship to another country. As Richmond recounts (see ), and which the Page witnesses, a significant exodus of disaffected Englishmen left in the wake of Richard’s coronation (see ). Morton After Morton’s entrance in this scene, his first speech prefix is Mort. In his remaining three lines, this changes to Seru. As these two speech prefixes evidently indicate the same character, these have here been conflated. A fool, … enemy Morton notes that doing favors does not guarantee the same treatment in return, but her foolish behavior has spoiled her chances to rise again. my store … small I don’t have very much money. part stakes Divide ( part, v.III.11.a) what we have evenly ( stake, n.1.d). I cannot … would I am unable to do what I promised I would, or wish I could. should … enemy Spoken for the Page’s benefit but misunderstood by Shore’s wife as a change of heart. This suggests the actor does not convey his regret. would Wish I could. with all … heart Morton takes a risk to speak frankly to Shore’s wife, but the Page seems not to notice. yonder villain The Page. but Although. fulsome and stinks Morally reprehensible and disgusting ( fulsome, adj.2.a). Why, hath … thee This line changes depending on the actor’s emphasis: hath he undone thee reads very differently to hath he undone thee, both of which imply she is to blame. The Page comments on Shore’s wife’s hubris and her self-inflicted downfall, seemingly inevitable regardless of whether Richard intervened. naughty Morally corrupt ( naughty, adj.2.a). wantest maintenance Are lacking money. thy old trade Prostitution. Shore’s wife’s reputation as a prostitute is chiefly apocryphal but was a common conception after her death. open penance Richard notes Shore’s wife will do penance at Paul’s Cross (see ), so she is stripped of her finery and forced to progress through the square holding a taper, as specifically noted in The Mirror for Magistrates (477). As she took her shame, More notes: she went in countenance and pace demure so womanly, and albeit she were out all attire save her kirtle only, yet went she so fair and lovely, namely while the wondering of the people cast a comely rud in her cheeks (of which she before had been most miss), that her great shame won her much praise among those that were more amorous of her body than curious of her soul, and many good folk also, that hated her living and glad were to see sin corrected, yet pitied they more her penance than rejoiced therein, when they considered that the protector procured it more of a corrupt intent than any virtuous affection. (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) This play does not show the actual penance, only the aftermath: Heywood, however, did stage this scene in , with the stage direction Enter the two Parators, with Mistris Shore in a white sheet barefooted with her hair about her eares, and in her hand a waxe taper (4.3). Fleischer suggests she may have been branded on her forehead, with a P for peccata as in the Purgatorio, or for Penitent, or even A, anticipating Hawthorne (137), although Henning questions whether branding was traditional (Henning 89). holy whore Hypocrite who preaches scripture yet acts counter to her words. shall … done Will never be finished punishing you. faults … mine is Shore’s wife attacks the Page’s hypocrisy for daring to mock her faults when his are hidden beneath the surface. Fleischer (137) notes this line as evidence she has been branded with some symbol of her sin, but it more likely refers to her blushing face, or physical signs of her ordeal, as facial branding was not common. cannot … court The Page accuses Shore’s wife of not knowing her place, as she begs in the streets near the court. set away Removed or killed (done away with) ( set v.1.PV2 to set away 1. all whores … served All prostitutes should be treated the same way. good Sarcastic, given the tenor of his previous lines. shameful Disgraceful, degrading ( shameful, adj.2). live … see Prophetic, even at her lowest ebb: Shore’s wife long outlived Richard and was still alive when More wrote his history. She is supposed to have died in 1527, 42 years after Richard, perhaps illustrating the restorative power of her penance and fall. wickedly Immorally ( wickedly, adv.1). And though … hurled This speech-ending couplet places an identifiable end-stop on the scene, despite the fact that Shore’s wife has spoken primarily in prose throughout. with a letter Brakenbury has received word about Tyrrell’s task. Master Tyrrell was knighted by Edward IV after his service at Tewkesbury yet is not called Sir James in this play or in Shakespeare. His role as royal murder conspirator diminishes his knightly status. demand Ask ( demand, v.I.i.1.a). offence Harm, injury, damage ( offense, n.3.a). them both The young king and the duke of York. I was … servant This is a historical inaccuracy: Brakenbury was a loyal servant to Richard from at least 1477, appointed lieutenant of the Tower on Richard’s command in July 1483. At Tyrrell’s execution in 1502, it was stated Brakenbury refused to kill the boys, but it had little to do with Edward IV (Horrox). give Permit, allow. you are … matter You have nothing to fear, you are not implicated. leave it Forget about it. here with tears The first of several sentimental references to the emotional impact of the boys’ murder, Brakenbury demonstrates the fear he feels which forces him to surrender the boys to save his own life, an echo of the dilemma the old Host feels when asked to imprison Rivers. prevail Overpower, master ( prevail, v.3.a). But ho Are you there? Myles Forrest Forrest is one of the two murderers of the boys in Shakespeare, as noted in both More (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) and Holinshed but he is an accessory in this play. The decision to use Forrest as an intermediary rather than murderer offers distance between the victims and their trusted attendant and might speak to how conflicted Brakenbury is over Forrest’s role. I spake of In this long chain of command, Richard employs the Page, who engages Tyrrell, who speaks to Forrest about acquiring two men to do the crime. As such, if Slaughter and Denton are caught, there is no direct connection from them to the king. Such a hierarchy appears in Shakespeare’s (see ), Peele’s , and (Fleischer 240–241). Will Slaughter A brutal name which signifies his occupation and his determination to carry it out, later observed by the young king. Jack Denton Denton’s name appears in multiple forms in this scene; here as Denten but later as Douton, with a speech prefix of Dout. (see ). This is likely a compositor’s error, with a turned letter n and a misreading of e for o. To make … folly To talk about this too much would be foolish. resolute Certain, clear-headed, determined (upon an action) ( resolute, adj.6). This is in contrast to King Edward’s earlier usage (in the sense of constant, firm, steadfast) to describe ambition (see ). delivered Presented, handed over ( delivered, v.II.11.a). cast away pity Forget about conscience. not so … favor Put the reward out of your mind. stern Severe, immovable ( stern, adj.1.a). ’Tis not … about Will presents himself and Jack as experienced killers, but this is questionable, given Jack’s fear (see ). An actor may play either or both of these characters as hardened killers, or braggarts. no bloodshed Richard’s command the boys’ blood not be shed is in part practical: less to clean and no incriminating evidence left. The reluctance to spill royal blood is a modicum of respect, also afforded Clarence, who was drowned rather than stabbed, and Hall’s chronicle notes, For James Tyrrell devised that they should be murdered in their beds, and no blood shed (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York)(Churchill 378, Churchill 405). Despite this stipulation, each killer’s suggestion involves bloodshed, a clue as to their intelligence. advises Recommendations ( advise, v.5.a). dags Heavy pistols ( dag, n.2.1). ready charged Loaded. suddenly Without warning. more … needs More complicated than necessary (Tilley A32). bring … both Bring up both killers to commit the murder after the boys are asleep, which allows the men to roll boys into the featherbeds and smother them. two feather-beds More records use of bed-clothes and pillows: Then all the other being removed from them, this Myles Forrest and John Denton about midnight (the sely children lying in their beds) came into the chamber, and suddenly lapped them up among the bedclothes—so bewrapped them and entangled them, keeping down by force the featherbed and pillows hard unto their mouths, that within a while, smored and stifled, their breath failing, they gave up to God their innocent souls into the joys of heaven, leaving to the tormentors their bodies dead in the bed (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London) Exit Tyrrell Q’s stage direction complicates the later removal of the princes’ bodies from the stage, but also provides him deniability about his role in the murders. sorrow … myself The young king’s youthful wisdom recalls the proverbial out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou ordained strength (GNV Psalms 8:2). whom our … left The young king comes close to criticizing his father’s judgment but concludes Richard’s slacking of duty is responsible. digress from duty Depart from what he had sworn to do. know … cause Can think of no good reason. detain To hinder; to delay ( detain, v.5). prelates High clergy, bishops ( prelate, n.1.a). melancholy Sullen, sad, depressed ( melancholy, adj.3.a). garden Tradition says the princes were held in the White Tower at the centre of the Tower, and so they had a view of the Tower Green below. Did the king? That was done by the king? am I … king He is not yet crowned, but he was proclaimed successor after Edward IV’s death. As far as he knows, he is king in all ways except for personal power held in trust by his uncle, and does not know of Richard’s campaign against his legitimacy. note a similar revelation in Shakespeare (see 3.5.8–10). would have said Meant to say. enjoy … liberty A line indebted to Hall: the prince sore abashed began to sigh and said: alas, I would mine uncle would let me have my life although I lose my kingdom (Hall 378). so If only. clean discharged Removed from his position permanently. new … laws Proverbial (Tilley L446), suggesting that people newly in power tend to change the system to suit themselves. This reflects the Citizen’s No men, no laws, no princes, no orders: activity and changes are as unnerving as the anticipation the Citizen notes (see ). who are they Even as Slaughter and Denton stand aside, the king sees and reacts to them, and in turn, the murderers may hear and react to the king’s dismay. ghastly looks Frightening demeanors. starts Flinches or recoils; startles; stares in horror ( start, v.I.8.a), all involuntary movements of distaste or fear. The young king’s physical reaction to Will Slaughter’s name is unmistakable and encourages sympathy for his gentle nature. walk up Forrest’s invitation suggests he takes the boys upstage, or potentially to the possible discovery space, hidden by a tapestry. see Imagine. moan Entreaty ( moan, n.1.b). ta’en … hand Agreed to do it. are you faint-hearted Timid, cowardly. Slaughter’s mockery matches the conversation between Clarence’s murderers in Shakespeare (see 1.4.104–135), where one assailant’s fear is subdued by the other. A little thing Such provocation. anon Forthwith; instantly ( anon, adv.3.a). feels me? Reacts to my touch? Slaughter revels in the thought that if the young king was startled by the mere sound of his name, the boy will be truly shocked when he feels Will’s wrath, which demonstrates his true cruelty. at rest Asleep. Moving … boys There are multiple ways this scene may be staged, depending on the venue. If a discovery space is available, a bed might be pushed out in view of the audience. Simpler venues might just have an area where the sleeping boys lie upstage. In either case, the boys are in view of the spectators, slightly obscured by upstage positioning. The struggle would certainly have happened in view. hear Forrest hears the sounds of the struggle and little drowsy cries as the boys are killed. calling from upstage While there is no prescribed stage direction that suggests where the boys are killed, it is likely the murder occurs upstage, which makes the act more distant from the audience, but still within their direct view. Forrest’s distance is intentional so as to not be a witness, but he can still hear what is happening. The on-stage murder is designed to be partially seen by the audience, and it is up to the actors to decide how much the boys struggle or resist, although from Denton’s aggressive commentary, it is not a peaceful death. The title-page reference to Wherein is shown the smothering of the two young princes leaves little doubt the violent act is in view. boots not Avails or helps nothing ( boot, v.1.3.a). cry again It is in Denton’s and Slaughter’s best interests to stifle further cries, lest they are discovered. At this point the boys are struggling for their lives, potentially calling for Forrest’s aid, thrashing, kicking, attempting to run away, or reaching out for one another. They are no match for the larger men, but they have made enough of a commotion that their murderers need to cover the boys’ faces to end it all. heap of stones More notes Tyrrell caused those murderers to bury them at the stair-foot, meetly deep in the ground, under a great heap of stones, source for this citation (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). In 1674, demolition of an old section of the White Tower uncovered two small skeletons, thought to be the princes. Charles II interred the bodies in Westminster Abbey under this assumption (Horrox). chronicles … mention The location of the burials are indeed lost to time, as More notes: their bodies cast God wot where, by the cruel ambition of their unnatural uncle and his despiteous tormentors (see Sir Thomas More, Undersheriff of London). Later chroniclers like Holinshed and Hall follow More, which renders this line accurate. kingly thanks Preferment, privilege. with … dagger drawn The last time we met Buckingham, his last line was God save the king in deference to Richard (see ). A great deal has changed since that entrance: his next three mentions refer to his role in the arrest of the Woodville faction (see ), then his efforts to proclaim Richard king (see ), and then finally to his rebellion and flight to Wales (see ). Historically, the Duke of Buckingham became disaffected with Richard in July 1483 after being denied access to Hastings’ estates. Bishop John Morton, Buckingham’s prisoner at Brecknock, took advantage of this disenchantment in October 1483 by persuading him to support the Beaufort-Woodville conspiracy, designed to place Richmond on the throne. By October 11 Richard was aware of Buckingham’s defection and subsequent raising of a rebel army in the Marches of Wales. Buckingham’s rebellion failed due to the lack of loyalty his mercenary army showed, and inclement weather that scattered his forces. After this failure, he went into hiding, relying on his former servant, Ralph Banastre, who we see in this scene after Banastre’s betrayal (Davies). The transition from God save the king to the desperation of threatening his close servant’s life shows the magnitude of his fall. save my life Spare me. unjustly betrayed me Ralph Banastre initially assisted Buckingham after the latter was declared a rebel fugitive. Buckingham stayed at Banastre’s home in Wem, Shropshire, but Banastre betrayed him for financial gain (Davies). proclamation … grace As Buckingham attempted to rouse allies, he was declared a traitor, which implicated any who associated with him. lucre Financial gain, money. spends … master Dedicates his life to supporting his master’s cause. Buckingham … Banastre Buckingham’s attack is fruitless: Ellis suggests Banastre was lauded for his role (100), although, as discussed below, the Herald’s order that he be arrested reflects the cost of his treason as reported by Holinshed (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) and Hall (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York). This is a vivid stage picture, with the desperate Buckingham ready to murder his servant for his betrayal, only to be prevented by the intervention of the Herald. This turn in fortunes and violent act would have a stunning effect on the audience, as well as on Buckingham himself. ’rest Arrest. bloodsucker Parasite ( bloodsucker, n.1.a), murderer ( bloodsucker, n.2). held Beheld. put … besides Buckingham’s role in the princes’ death is omitted. Shakespeare has Buckingham hesitate to help (see 4.2.24–26), but here he is entirely innocent. Historically, Buckingham is implicated: one suggests the boys were put to death in the Tower of London be the vise of the duke of Buckingham (Anonymous, Historical, 588), although his involvement is lessened in Vergil and More (Davies). bishop of Ely In Buckingham’s custody, Morton came into his captor’s good graces, and convinced him to support Richmond. After Buckingham set out to raise support, Morton fled to Brittany and left Buckingham to Richard. All Buckingham’s supporters. The noise that Buckingham’s rescuers would have made would have been considerable. With six actors shouting, and using their swords, bucklers, and daggers to bang on their armor to make a racket, there would have been an impressive cacophony as they attempted to prevent his arrest. We don’t know the identity of these men, but they are loyal to Buckingham, likely equipped in advance of joining the Welsh against Richard. give me … speak Let me say something. bringing in Helping to elevate. Henry, … Richmond Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, was the final Lancastrian claimant to the English throne, a great-great-great grandson to Edward III through his mother, Margaret Beaufort. He inherited the title of the earl of Richmond from his father, who died before his birth. After the accession of Edward IV in 1462, Henry Tudor was sent to be brought up in Wales, where he spent much of his youth. After his uncle Henry VI reclaimed the throne briefly in 1470, Richmond was predicted to be a future king, but the short-lived Lancastrian readeption meant Richmond was forced to flee to France to avoid capture. He landed in Brittany and was well received by François II, duke of Brittany, who remained a steadfast supporter, partly for the preferment he anticipated were Richmond to claim the throne. After a failed invasion in October 1483, Richmond landed in Wales in August 1485, where he defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth, outside Leicester. He was proclaimed King Henry VII on 22 August 1485, was crowned on 30 October 1485, and married the Princess Elizabeth of York on 14 January 1486. He died on 21 April 1509. The first mention of Richmond, as Bezio notes, follows almost immediately upon the heels of the murder of the two princes in the Tower, textually situating him as Edward V’s heir (72). ere long Very soon. Milford Haven This encompasses the Milford Haven Estuary Waterway in Pembrokeshire, on the southwest coast of Wales. aid of … Welsh Richmond’s Welsh support is outlined below (see ). lawful king Richmond. Buckingham’s treasonous statement declares Richard’s rule unlawful. This contrasts with Richard’s usurpation, and even Richard acknowledges Richmond’s right (Bezio 72; see ). this King Richard, but likely directed at Richard’s herald. amain Hence with full speed ( amain, adv.2.a). the man … reave The one who is destined to relieve ( reave v.1.2a). yoke Burden of servitude ( yoke, n.IV.11). The same term Richard uses when describing his service to his brother (see ). home Grave. This anticipates Richard’s similar phrasing in threatening Richmond (see ). given to Won by. to’fore Previously, beforehand, earlier ( tofore, adv.1). as promise … passed Betrothal was earlier passed or consented to by Edward IV. Richmond’s mother petitioned for marriage to Elizabeth during Edward IV’s lifetime. After Richard III took the throne, his opponents’ appetite grew for the potential in Richmond’s marriage to Elizabeth. While then Until that time. meaning good Intention pure. raise Elevate, crown. were smothered We have no real sense when the boys died but, given that fugitive Buckingham knows of their fate, this scene occurs some weeks later. The boys’ death may be the reason for Buckingham’s flight, given his potentially being named an accessory to the crime. Buckingham was involved with the boys’ removal from their uncles, and did nothing to prevent their deaths. vaunt Praiseworthy, commending himself openly or giving a good account of his behavior ( vaunt, v.3.a). Buckingham congratulates himself for being no part of child-murder. altogether innocent Buckingham’s second protestation seems genuine in grief for the boys. As a close advisor to Richard, Buckingham, if he truly had no idea about the plot, shows Richard’s devious secrecy. child … thee up Banastre was a gentleman of good family and may have been trained as a child and teenager with Buckingham has many noble or gentry children were traded around as part of their education. In the history of the village of Wem, Banastre is remembered as having been tenderly brought up by Humphrey Stafford, the great Duke of Buckingham, who loved, favored, and trusted him above all his servants (Garbett 363). curse of Buckingham Buckingham curses Banastre as Buckingham’s Ghost curses Richard in Shakespeare (see 5.4.147.s.d.–5.4.156). Banastre was rewarded Buckingham’s Kent estate (Yalding Manor), which he later re-gifted back to Henry VII, which might suggest prosperity resulted from his actions, but chroniclers note Banastre’s misfortune after his betrayal. Holinshed records that: shortly after Banastre had betrayed the duke his master; his son and heir waxed mad, and so died in a boar’s sty; his eldest daughter of excellent beauty, was suddenly stricken with a foul leprosy; his second son marvelously deformed of his limbs, and made lame; his younger son in a small puddle was strangled and drowned; and he being of extreme age, arraigned, and found guilty of a murder, and by his clergy saved. And as for his thousand pounds, king Richard gave him not one farthing, saying that he which would be untrue to so good a master, would be false to all other: howbeit some say that he had a small office or a farm to stop his mouth withal. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) This account is replicated by Hall (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York), and also appears in Sackville’s entry in (see The Complaint of Henry Duke of Buckingham). Sackville, in particular, adds prophetic details of Banastre’s future to Buckingham’s curse. The consequences of Banastre’s actions (and Buckingham’s curse) are clearly emphasized. vengeance Personal retribution ( vengeance, n.2.a). The first use of this word since the ghost’s Vendicta (see ), it will be quickly repeated in the next scene by Richard (see ). mischiefs A misfortune, a calamity ( mischief, n.I.1.a). light … thine Descend on you and your supporters ( light, v.1.II.7). Ixion … wheel In Greek mythology, Ixion, king of Thessaly, whose lust for Hera offended Zeus, was cast into the sky bound to a spinning, winged wheel of fire. Buckingham wishes greater torments on Banastre than Ixion endured. According to the accounts in Holinshed (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland), Hall (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York), and in Sackville’s entry (see The Complaint of Henry Duke of Buckingham), Buckingham’s wish may have been answered. let me Allow them to take me. My lord … Banastre The final moment in this scene is one of great tension as the two sides face off, with Buckingham and Banastre between them. The Herald’s apology demonstrates his understanding of the difficult task he has been given, and also works to pacify Buckingham’s supporters. While Buckingham’s men may still have their weapons raised, the Herald’s men are no longer on the attack. Banastre’s arrest may be a further concession to Buckingham’s followers: the actors have the decision to make here whether Banastre is arrested by the Herald’s men or if he is handed over to Buckingham’s followers. King Richard, crowned Richard has come from his coronation, replicated in Shakespeare (see 4.2.1). This is the first reference to Richard as king in stage directions; he likely wears the crown here. While a king may not necessarily wear his crown in daily use, the change in Richard’s status for the sake of the audience would require its presence. Given that Richard is coming directly from his coronation, this is a logical addition which makes it clear that he has ascended to king, without having to state it. ventured Risked. friends Former allies (Buckingham), family members (Clarence, the princes), relations by marriage (Rivers, Grey). fearful Terror-inspiring ( fearful, adj.I.1.a). severe judge God of Last Judgment. Richard is beset with guilt he must explain in the afterlife. severe judge The fact a damnèd judgment craves a crime which demands punishment in hell. This suggests the proverbial blood will have blood (Tilley B458), also cited in (3.4.120). This also suggests the earlier blood is a threatener (see ). crown … wear Symbol of kingship that was once easy to support. As he rose in power, Richard saw the crown as a symbol of his right, and the valuable stones which comprise it as reflective of his gains. Now that he wears it, his burden of criminal actions weighs heavily on his conscience. Enchased Decorated, ornamented ( enchase, v.2.I.1). raging … on me Angry demons have transferred their dreadful spirits through hell to infuse them in me. Stygian lakes In Greek mythology, fiery lakes of the Styx, the river over which Charon must ferry the shades of the dead before they settle in the underworld. Q shows studient, which suggests a typesetter’s or scribal error, while Boswell proposed this correction. To retain studient, or conscientious, studious ( studient, adj.1) removes connection with the lakes Richard’s tormentors inhabit. addressed Directed ( address, v.I.1); prepared (for a particular purpose) ( address, v.II.12.a). If’t … good. Catesby This series of eight lines in Q has over-long lines and awkward speech patterns, which suggests Richard’s thought processes fragment through prose as he struggles to communicate, even with himself. i’this extremity Facing the utmost penalty ( extremity, n.3.b). The verse breaks down as Richard considers how to proceed with his unfamiliar burden of conscience. This disruption reflects Richard’s flagging inner confidence. E’en repent Should I ask for forgiveness? thy righteous god Richard turns on the audience to mock their faith and ridicules the idea of asking for mercy. Ha, repent Richard’s reversed repentance is shorter than its equivalent in Shakespeare (see 5.4.157–202). In this case, Richard laughs at the idea in barely two lines. list Choose, desire ( list, v.1.3). Thy god … mine The god you worship is not the god I worship. pace Measure ( pace, v.2). valance Protection, barrier ( valance, n.1.2.a). Soul … body So deep in blood, Richard chooses certain damnation by staying his course. That’s good I have decided. troubles … overcomed Richard’s need for reassurance and his growing sense he himself may be England’s biggest problem demonstrates his paranoia and jumpiness. Field notes that the clumsy final word is an ancient participle of come (Field 47). thou points … me Catesby does not necessarily physically point (although that offers comic opportunities): Richard accuses him of equivocating. else not No one. Salisbury Buckingham was executed here on 2 November 1483 in the public marketplace. He requested audience with Richard in the hopes of assassinating him, but was refused (Davies). Holinshed records: when Buckingham had confessed the whole fact & conspiracy, upon All-Soul’s Day, without arraignment or judgment, he was at Salisbury in the open market place, on a new scaffold beheaded and put to death (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland). to be … head Richard mocks Buckingham’s support of Richmond’s claim to the throne. if ’a do If he does. fames notoriety. Greg (1929, ix) lists this as a doubtful reading, and proposes Field’s conj. flames (48) as an alternative, but the logic of outlive me in flames is spurious as it proposes damnation for Buckingham. The Ransom text is damaged on this line, which makes clarity difficult. he hops … head The action of a dead chicken. Buckingham lost his head for treason before he could enact any of his plans and repeats his earlier phrasing (see ). no force No matter ( force, n.1.III.20.a). Richmond The future Henry VII. Richard is conscious of Richmond’s right to the throne by family, marriage and battle, and the audience would be well aware of his historical importance. Richard’s first mention of his opponent comes only 60 lines after Buckingham’s first (see ). Once an irritant, he is becoming a major problem, particularly as nobles continue to defect. Brittany … duke After defeat at Tewkesbury, remaining Lancastrians crossed the channel to the court of Duke François II of Brittany. François recognized the political advantages of Richmond’s cause, hosted him in Rennes for over a decade, and supported both invasion attempts. conspires Actively plots. persuades Convinces ( persuade, v.I.1.a). lineally descended Richmond’s claim was valid, as great-great-great-grandson of Edward III through his mother, Margaret Beaufort. Richard notes a connection through Richmond’s grandmother, Catherine of Valois, widow of Henry V, dependent on marriage rather than blood. hath right Has a claim. what thinkst thou What is your impression? doth deserve Has earned, is worthy. commend Praise, extol ( commend, v.3.a). as good … foe Catesby confesses that one so esteemed as Richmond would be a valuable ally. due … traitor The inevitable fate of any who dare to rebel or betray; that is, beheading, if not hanged, drawn, and quartered. strengthening … title Improving of his claim. Marrying Elizabeth takes Richmond’s claim from tenuous to impressive. concluded Determined, settled ( concluded, adj.1). all the … Brittany This timeline is compacted: Catesby says Buckingham died the day before (November 3) but Richmond declared his intent to marry Elizabeth at Rennes on December 25. Richmond’s allies saw his announcement of intention as constituting a strong claim on the throne. there it goes You have proven my point. A marriage … blood Faux-proverbial: a marriage undertaken for the wrong reasons will end badly. Richard’s phrasing is unique to this play. accursed Damnable, hated ( accursed, adj.2). bewitch Influence with magic, injure by devilish means ( bewitch, v.1). perilous birds Dangerous exiles. Richard continues the avian metaphor from the hatching conspiracies manifested by the flight of so many enemies to Richmond’s side. weal Happiness, prosperity ( weal, n.1.2.a). earl … nobility Richmond has formed an army with a growing list of defectors and prepares to invade. aid in France Richmond also spent time in the French court after Pierre Landais turned on him in 1484 and attempted to extradite him to England at Richard III’s request. Richmond evaded Landais and found the support of the young French king, Charles VIII, who provided troops and resources for Richmond’s invasion (Gunn). rescued in Brittany François II, the Duke of Brittany, sheltered Lancastrian exiles in exchange for political favor. But all … rescue Richard’s phrasing indicates a growing panic that he cannot seem to control. Run-together statements that begin with but indicates that he is beginning to piece together the full picture and negotiates with himself as he leaps from conclusion to conclusion. His phrasing makes clear that he is losing his grip on the situation. escape from Landais Pierre Landais, who appears briefly in the following scene, was treasurer to François II, duke of Brittany, and negotiated with Richard to surrender Richmond (see ). Before Landais could complete the transaction, Richmond escaped to France. In this play, Landais’ treachery does not undermine their relationship. ended all Solved the problem before it began. disgrace Landais’ treason infuriated the ailing Breton duke François II, who had appointed him proxy ruler as he recovered. Landais was exiled (then executed) for his efforts. In reality, Landais died a month prior to the Battle of Bosworth, but he remains in this play as a key link to Brittany. biting dogs … curs Richard likens Richmond’s followers to dogs; the biting dogs are the ones who are actively supporting Richmond, including his French allies, while the sleeping curs are Richmond’s allies in England who are waiting for his arrival before they declare their intentions. Richard is aware of how much ground he is losing. wake … foe Arouse the English enemy. Brittany’s gamble was considerable, and its hope for nationhood would have been demolished had Richard defeated Richmond and taken revenge for their support. Instead, Brittany held a powerful ally in Henry VII. evil … war Traitorous actions justify the punishments that follow. spurs Motivations ( spur, v.1.I.2.a). Stanley Spelled as Standley in Q and all subsequent editions, but universally corrected for this edition. father-in-law Stepfather ( father-in-law, n.2, now arch. and hist.). Stanley was married to Margaret Beaufort, Richmond’s mother, in 1572, when Richmond was 15 years old. guilty death A traitor’s execution. letters … embassage Stanley did not travel to Brittany but was suspected of receiving communications from Richmond and his allies. George George Stanley was 25 at Bosworth, but given the tenor of his lines, he was played by one of the boy-actors who performed as princes. Roberts-Smith has argued for the casting of the company’s youngest boy, to heighten sympathy (2012, 198). for that … received I have sent as much as I have received; in other words, nothing. I do … mistrust I am not worried about. Stanley may claim he felt Richard means George. he Richmond. Richard is yet to use his name but won’t let Stanley quibble. nobility Defector lords. nor willingly … causes Accounts vary on Stanley’s loyalty to his king and son-in-law; his political indecision played out at Bosworth, where he (reportedly) waited to decide what side to join. This wavering offers a rich source of subtext for any actor. golden … eloquence Richard mocks Stanley’s evasive answers and eloquent speech. out of … England An asynchronous link to an earlier conversation; Richard claims Stanley did not tell him Richmond went to Brittany, which occurred a decade prior. pass over Go into exile; also cross the channel. but Only. fine-colored tale Wittily-constructed lie. whereas you mistrust Even if you do not believe. at his At the time of his. was I … council Stanley emphasizes his loyalty to Edward IV at the time Richmond fled, so he was not party to his step-son’s plans. she Margaret Beaufort, Richmond’s mother. relieve … help Margaret’s role in Richmond’s rise was well known, and so Stanley does not attempt to suggest otherwise, but claims she offered such support. sufficiency Personal wealth ( sufficiency, n.1.a). furnish … munition Richard has no proof Stanley funded Richmond but is happy to accuse. deserts Consequences, rewards ( desert, n.1.1.a). repair Reason for travelling. Cheshire … Lancashire Stanley owned estates (Tatton Park, Cheshire and Lathom House, Lancashire) close enough to the coast to justify Richard’s suspicion. posts pass invisible Messages be sent without being noticed. or else And then I would have to. intolerable foe Richmond. Richard says if Stanley is able to pass messages (and military intelligence) to his step-son, the threat of Richmond’s influence will become too great to tolerate. I will not I do not want. but Except. noisome Harmful, injurious, noxious ( noisome, adj.1). pledge Surety, guarantee ( pledge, v.1.c). pledge Hostage. This word occurs four times within fourteen lines and emphasizes the lengths to which Richard will go to frighten him into submission (see ; ; ; ). leaving me here Richard’s imprisonment of George was reported by Holinshed: For the lord Stanley was afraid, least if he should seem openly to be a fautor or aider to the earl his son in law, before the day of the battle, that king Richard, which yet utterly did not put in him diffidence and mistrust, would put to some cruel death his son and heir apparent George lord Strange, whom king Richard (as you have heard before) kept with him as a pledge or hostage, to the intent that the lord Stanley his father should attempt nothing prejudicial to him. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) that … should be I will kill if you betray me. Advise … cause I must decide what do for my private plan. Stanley is caught in a dilemma: he must maintain his conspiracy to support Richmond, but at the same time work out a plan to deceive Richard and save George. faith be kept Do as I have promised. proffer Proposal; perhaps, challenge ( proffer, n.1), since neither man trusts the other. set … defense Richard allows Stanley his liberty with assurance of obedience. Richard takes a calculated risk to keep Stanley as his ally. stay the hindrance Limit the damage ( hindrance, n.1). prevent … power End his campaign with your loyal soldiers. Vergil reports about 3.M. were at the battle of Bosworth, under the conduct of William Stanley, or three thousand men (see Anglia Historia). Stanley’s army nearly doubled Richmond’s, and Richard hoped Stanley would overwhelm Richmond before Bosworth. of my life On my honor. otherwise In any other way ( otherwise, n.1). shall … will Will be disastrous for you if I do. letters The stage picture would suggest an emotional embrace between Stanley and the small boy, an affecting image that Richard appears not to understand. Stanley’s moment of farewell is elaborate enough that Richard suspects he is passing information, or retrieving letters held by the boy for safety. I have done I am finished (embracing my son). second … sweet An additional embrace is justified. Stanley believes this the last time he will see George, a sign he has resolved to sacrifice his son. To an attendant Catesby is the only named member to appear in Richard’s court so far in this scene, but he is not available to take George Stanley to prison. A member of Richard’s unnamed retinue as described at the beginning of the scene will take him away. prison Richard is unequivocal about George’s fate, and immediately sheds the illusion he will care for George until Stanley’s safe return. prick … dam Injuring the child will also hurt the parent. Faux-proverbial; having George in custody is as effective as directly wounding his father, or, more accurately, his mother, Margaret Beaufort, mother to both George and Richmond. so excellent I like very much. Lord … Queen The first mention of Lovell, one of Richard’s advisors, and reportedly his closest friend (Horrox). Lovell has been sent to sound out the Mother Queen on a proposition of marriage to the princess. Churchill notes that the act of sending Lovell to the Mother Queen (not a nameless messenger as noted in the chronicles) matches with the same action in Legge. As Churchill points out, in , Lovell is Richard’s appointed wooer (479). in good time A colloquial greeting, loosely meaning Lovely to see you. Also: speak of the devil. McMillin and MacLean refer to this as the see, my lord, where he comes phenomenon, to announce the next scene’s content before showing the scene, which they characterize as the Queen’s Men telling the truth at their worst (134–135). suit Petition, entreaty ( suit, n.I.4.a). strange Distant, unwilling to concede ( strange, adj.11.b). she quickly … consent It appears the Princess’s consent (agreed to by the Mother Queen) was feigned. Holinshed records: the messengers, being men both of wit and gravity, so persuaded the queen with great and pregnant reasons, & what with fair and large promises, that she began somewhat to relent, and to give to them no deaf ear; insomuch that she faithfully promised to submit and yield herself fully and frankly to the king’s will and pleasure. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) Ultimately, however, all men and the maiden herself Princess Elizabeth detested and abhorred this unlawful, and in manner unnatural copulation (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland). As Edward IV’s children were disinherited for their father’s prior verbal engagement with Lady Eleanor Talbot, this commitment was likely sufficient for Richard’s needs. leave sanctuary Holinshed blames Richard’s messengers for Elizabeth’s decision to leave sanctuary: And so she putting in oblivion the murder of her innocent children, the infamy and dishonor spoken by the king her husband, the living in adultery laid to her charge, the bastarding of her daughters; forgetting also the faithful promise and open oath made to the countess of Richmond, mother to the earl Henry, blinded by avaricious affection, & seduced by flattering words, first delivered into King Richard’s hands her five daughters, as lambs once again committed to the custody of the ravenous wolf. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) Be careful … it Treat this with great caution. such … forever Richard correctly identifies Elizabeth as the key to Richmond’s hopes. Richard notes if Richmond can win Elizabeth, he and his heirs will be assured of a successful future. Nottingham A city in the Midlands region, which lays 128 miles north of London, and served as a strategic meeting place given its position at a ford over the Trent River. While Nottingham is closer to London than to Scotland, the relative median point made this a logical parley location. This reference compacts the timeline. Consecutive entries in the Acta Regia for September 1484 records A Treaty of Truce for three Years betwixt England and Scotland; dated September the 20th as above meaning, at Nottingham. The following entry records the agreement: ANOTHER for the 1606–1607 Marriage of the Prince of Scotland with Anne of Suffolk; dated September the 21st, as above (32). These treaties were agreed on September 20 and 21, 1484. Catesby notes Buckingham was executed the day before, on 3 November 1483, or ten months prior. Gog’s God’s ( Gog, n.1.2). This corruption allowed the speaker to blaspheme without using God’s name, and was common in early modern drama. Łodej identifies 215 instances of variants on gog’s in plays during the 15th and 16th centuries (372). greet Respectfully hail ( greet v.1,3a). Scottish … Rosa The prince of Rothsay and Anne de la Pole, here nicknamed Rosa for her adoption of the title princess of Rothsay on her betrothal (Churchill 452). Hall notes this alliance was concluded for the benefit of Richard’s sister Anne and the advancement of her line (Hall 401). Rothsay was the future King James IV of Scotland, making this connection potentially profitable, but after Richard’s death, the engagement was voided (Hall 400), and Anne became a nun. James IV married Henry VIII’s sister Margaret Tudor. you give … that Allow me to decide whether I will share that with you. somewhat … besides More to tell. confer Agree ( confer, v.5.a). Captain … Castle The son of Walter Blount, 1st Baron Mountjoy, James Blount was commander of the English fortress of Hammes Castle in Calais. Hammes was one of a group of surrounding fortifications which defended Calais and maintained English garrisons and prisoners (Grummitt 64). Blount was Oxford’s jailer at Hammes Castle in Calais. Blount became disaffected with Richard’s rule, and when the like-minded Oxford was commanded to return to England, Blount saw the opportunity to travel with Oxford in order to join up with Richmond. I take … leave As the bearer of bad news, it is not surprising the messenger tries to exit immediately before he bears Richard’s wrath. betrayed Proven himself disloyal ( betrayed, adj.1). Blount, as commander of Hammes Castle in Calais, was officially aligned with Richard, but switched to support Richmond. rebel Resist, oppose ( rebel, v.1.a). prison … pleasures A source of Richard’s paranoia is the defection or rebellion of those he thought loyal. The ease with which Oxford and Blount took advantage of political orders to leave Calais and the exodus to Richmond represented shifting ground below his feet. complex Taking into possession, or laying hold of the kingdom. Q has Conflex, a difficult word to justify in this context. In Latin, as a noun complexus means close grip (of an enemy), whereas confligo, conflixi, conflictum means to be in conflict, struggle, fight. Other alternatives considered include conflict, or struggle with (an enemy) and conflux, meaning flow or pour together, but neither of these provides a superior reading. unresisted Uninterrupted ( unresisted, adj.2). How are … swords Richard knows that, since his own allies betray him, he cannot overcome Richmond. subversion Overthrow, deposition ( subversion, n.1.c). sack Plunder, destruction ( sack, n.2.1.a). of his With an army led by Richmond. Shakespeare similarly dismisses Richmond’s army (see 5.5.43-70). Field suggests this might be a point of corruption (Field 54) but it is possible to make sense of it as it stands. neither … shall None of these things will happen. arm … enemies Fight alongside those loyal to me and we will destroy the traitors. beard Defy, rebuke, thwart ( beard, v.3). but one Only Richmond concerns Richard, as his last rival for power. his power … weak He has a small, unimpressive army. melody The sound of singing bullets in a barrage of gun-fire, alluding to the superior weaponry of Richard’s forces. his longest home His grave. England’s In fact, the landing was at Milford Haven, Wales, subsumed into England, but the prince of Wales, heir to the English throne, had been invested separately since 1301. blissful isle Blessed sacred, holy island ( blissful, adj.3). Richmond first attempted to invade England in late 1483, but a series of mishaps prevented his landing. This scene depicts his August 1485 first contact with British soil, in Milford Haven, Wales. forwardness Furtherance or advancement ( forwardness, n.2.b). sole As brother and uncle to kings and son to a claimant, Richard had a stronger claim, which Richmond dismisses. Henry VI’s death made Richmond head of the Lancastrian line, and his engagement to Elizabeth offered a strengthened claim in the union of a Lancastrian and a Yorkist. but usurps Merely claims it unduly as his own ( usurp, v.I.4.b). tyranny Arbitrary or oppressive exercise of power ( tyranny, n.3.a). succor Furnish with military assistance ( succor, v.2). guiltless blood craves The blood of the innocent dead demands or importunes. harmless Free from guilt; innocent ( harmless, adj.3). countrymen Welshmen, and by extension, Britons. Richmond is one of the few kings of England born in Wales, less than nine miles from his landing at Milford Haven. Henry V was also born in Wales, in Monmouth. dismayed Overwhelmed with fear, appalled ( dismayed, adj.1). Our quarrel’s good Richmond’s cause is valid and legitimate ( quarrel, n.2.2.c). God Vergil notes Richmond’s piety: he freely gave his help to divine matters, attended services when they were held, and was never prevented from this observance by any press of business or lack of time. He attentively heard Mass twice or thrice daily, and often listened to sermons, assiduously gave charity to the poor, and indeed did so secretly. (Sutton, ed. 50) These actions explain his regular evocation of God. dangers Evils that threaten ( danger, n.4.b). fear … foes Military desperation. Without Stanley’s army, Richmond was outnumbered two to one (see ). daunted Dispirited; overcome with fear ( daunted, adj.2). attempts Efforts to accomplish what is uncertain or difficult ( attempt, v.I.1.a). Thy foot … shore Oxford’s loyalty to Richmond has roots in their Lancastrian origins. Oxford and Blount’s meeting Richmond in Britain is historically inaccurate. plights Undertakes an obligation, pledges his loyalty ( plight, n.1.3). underta’en Taken in hand; enterprised ( undertaken, adj.2). Presumably Oxford’s choice to join Richmond’s cause is a death sentence if the invasion fails to defeat Richard. resolution Removal of doubt, certainty, positive knowledge ( resolution, n.1.III.12.a and n.1.III.12.b). conqueror One who subdues or subjugates a nation ( conqueror, n.1.a). This is likely not a coincidental link to William the Conqueror, given their similar vectors of conquest across the channel to subdue Britain. Similarly, this phrase helps to consciously elevate Richmond from one with a tenuous claim on the crown to a glorious conqueror. field Battlefield ( field, n.1.I.ii.6.a). Richmond, determined to win in battle to prove his worth militarily, marched on London to force Richard into combat. He was the last king of England to succeed by such means. Or lose … right Or die in the pursuit of a just cause. Oxford notes the potential of Richmond’s martyrdom as secondary to the glory of his victory. right Legal or moral entitlement for an action ( right, n.II.9.d). Oxford’s repetition emphasizes Richmond’s claim. Maugre In spite of, notwithstanding ( maugre, prep.1.b). Richard’s brood Richard’s allies, prideful peacocks (proverbial, Tilley P157). Oxford casts doubt on their substance: stylish and showy but holding no fear. cousin Friend, intimate, familiar acquaintance ( cousin, n.2.a). straight to arms Immediately to battle. Having landed at Milford Haven, Richmond’s retinue was not under direct threat: as Vergil notes: he came unto Wales the 7th day after, a little before sunset, where, entering the haven called Milford, and forthwith going a-land, he took first a place the name whereof is Dale, where he heard that certain companies of his adversaries had had their stations the winter bypassed to have kept him from landing. From thence departing in the break of day he went to Haverford, which is a town not ten miles from Dale, where he was received with great goodwill of all men. (see Anglia Historia) By calling the men immediately to arms, even though they were on friendly ground, the playwright compacts time and suggests the battle is near. God … for us Battle cry of the Hundred Years’ War started by Edward III, Richmond’s ancestor. Edward III joined his order of the garter to St. George as an emblem of England. Beyond the British battle-cry (as used in many history plays including ), Oxford also pairs St. George and God to evoke Richmond’s divine right, and likens Richard to the kind of dragon St. George was supposed to have slain. England is overrun by a monster, and bringing the conquering Richmond to slay him (notwithstanding that Richmond was Welsh, itself represented by the red dragon), calls the hearers to order. perform Accomplish what one has undertaken ( perform, v.I.2.a). valor Worth or worthiness ( valour, n.1.b). In fact, the long-exiled Richmond had had little opportunity to show his valor in times past: Bosworth was his first battlefield engagement. He was, however, raised in martial environments, including time spent with the earls of Pembroke (Jasper Tudor and William Herbert), and in his exile in Brittany and France, he would have been exposed to training in horsemanship, hand-to-hand combat, fencing, and military strategy. unfeignèd Sincere, genuine, true ( unfeigned, adj.1). Landais refers to the feigned love that characterizes the followers of Richard, given his general unpopularity in Tudor depictions. For example, schoolmaster William Collingbourne nailed a mocking poem to the door of St. Paul’s: The Cat Catesby, the Rat Ratcliffe, and Lovell our dog, / Rule all England under an hog Richard which, according to Holinshed, caused Collingbourne to be abbreviated shorter by the head, and to be divided into four quarters (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland). This gang of four animals suggests Richard’s inner circle was reputed as small. Queen Mother The only instance in the play in which the Mother Queen, Elizabeth Woodville, is referred to as Queen Mother (for metrical purposes). The Mother Queen has not yet consented that Richmond marry Princess Elizabeth, a major key to preventing any further dissent from Yorkists. peers have promised On Christmas Day, 1483, Richmond swore publicly to marry Elizabeth of York before the gathered lords (or peers) who, endorsed and supported this means of unifying the houses. As reported by Holinshed: In the which season the feast of the Nativity of our savior Christ happened, on which day all the English lords went with their solemnity to the chief church of the city, and there each gave faith and promise to other the earl himself first took a corporal oath on his honor, promising that incontinent after he should be possessed of the crown and dignity of the realm of England, he would be conjoined in matrimony with the lady Elizabeth daughter to king Edward the fourth. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) Edward’s … day Landais retrofits the coronation of Edward—obviously a dark day for Lancastrians—by noting that without it, there could be no new alliance between Richmond and Elizabeth. The presence of Edward in this moment is potentially confusing, given the focus on Richmond, soon to become Henry VII. A change from Edward to Richmond might smooth an audience’s understanding of what coronation we mean, but also removes the texture involved with acknowledging the young king’s short reign. Thanks to Jenny Parr for a suggestion of how Richmond might be a logical update in performance. kind Having a claim or right by birth or inheritance; legitimately entitled ( kind, adj.I.3.a). deal Manage, restore proper rule. Richmond promises a different style from his predecessors: based on the English tradition of limited participatory monarchy. Richmond swears to uphold the laws of the realm, eliminate threats to national stability, and protect the commonwealth provided that the nobles and commons uphold their promise to support his bid for the throne. (Bezio 72) savage Uncultivated, rugged, inhospitable (Thomas, Fĕrăbītĕs). brambles, … sprigs Literally, prickly fast-spreading shrubs; metaphorically, snags, delays, and difficulties, particularly seen as foreign plants choking out the native flora. Sprigs are small decorative treesthat might be ruined by the presence of the aggressive plants that overgrow them. spring … effect Bounce back to their original state. crossed Thwarted, opposed ( crossed, adj.3.a). prove … commonweal Turn out to be exemplary members of the wider state and community ( commonweal, n.2). Roman state Bezio notes this reference: invokes hierarchical law rather than the traditional limited monarchy implied by the use of commonweal and council’s rule. Richmond is a mixture of divine right and limited monarchy that claims absolutism, yet acknowledges the power of the commonwealth and council. (Bezio 72; see ; ) council’s rule Concilium plebis, or the plebeian council, which allowed commoners governmental structure through which laws and statutes were passed. Richmond’s suggestion is that this fair and balanced manner of governing honored the Roman state. And I … sword Richmond wishes to take England by force, not policy, in the tradition seen in earlier kings like Richard I, Edward III, Richard II, and Henry IV and V. Henry VI was a reluctant soldier, and so was defeated by Edward IV and his Yorkist supporters. resolve Firm intention ( resolve, n.1.a). mowed Cut down, cleared ( mow, v.1.1.a). hinder Keep back impede, obstruct ( hinder, v.2.a). long … good Richmond implies yearning for the oppressed English to support and contribute to his cause, which heightens Richard’s infamy and Richmond’s urgency. This desire works most immediately for Oxford, who chooses to be at Richmond’s side at risk of his own life, and Lord Stanley, despite the threat to his son George. dangerous’t brunt Most damaging outcry or alarm ( brunt, n.1.II.6). garrison Even though Wales was historically Lancastrian-sympathetic, Richard retained defensive troops across the country to protect against invasion by countries trying to take advantage of the Lancastrian-Yorkist divide. Milford Haven After Richmond’s unsuccessful earlier invasion, Richard’s forces in Wales were on the lookout in Dale Castle, Pembrokeshire, 3 km south of Henry’s eventual landing site. Oxford notes how close they came to detection by landing in Mill Bay, at the mouth of Milford Haven. daunt Dispirit, intimidate ( daunt, n.1). took Arrested, captured ( take, v.I.i.1.b). duke of Buckingham The loss of Buckingham was a serious blow to Richmond: when he had heard these news thus reported, he first sorrowed and lamented his first attempt and setting forward of his friends, and in especial of the nobility, not to have more fortunately succeeded (Holinshed 420). base a mind Fearful an attitude ( base, adj.II.10.a). wink Turn a blind eye, ignore ( wink, v.1.5.a). secretly put up Plotted in secret. upstarts Rivers and Grey. usurping king Richard’s path to the throne and the disappearance of the princes comprised a favored narrative for Richmond’s propaganda against his predecessor. There appears to be little irony in Oxford’s line given that he has the fullest of intentions of living in England under the next usurping king, Henry VII. The act of invading England and overthrowing an anointed king problematizes the concept of the divine right of kings, however: both and suggest the primacy of designation over direct divine intervention, tacitly authorizing rebellion against tyranny by aligning it with the founder of the Tudor dynasty (Bezio 72). resolution A fixed or positive intention or ambition ( resolution, n.1.III.11.a). Oxford uses the same word above (see ). Mother Queen The Mother Queen holds status as the mother of the princes in the Tower, whose deaths are still unreported. This title is doubly appropriate as mother to Elizabeth, Richmond’s future queen. Lady Stanley Margaret Beaufort, great-grand-daughter of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, bore the future Henry VII only months after the plague death of her husband Edmund Tudor, the first earl of Richmond and half-brother of Henry VI. Margaret was separated from her son after the ascension of Edward IV, but energetically positioned Richmond (the second earl) as the alternate Lancastrian heir. Margaret’s marriage to Stanley grew from a political union into something more lasting and was cause for Richard’s ultimately justified mistrust in Stanley (Jones). Admit him straight Bring him immediately into my presence. our mother Richmond’s mother lived a life of danger from her association with Anne Neville, Richmond, Stanley, and Elizabeth Woodville. Richmond is right to ask after her well-being, although Richard’s need for Stanley’s assistance bought her more freedom than most. Lord Talbot The fourth Earl of Shrewsbury, who supported Richmond at Bosworth and lived to advise Henry VIII. brave band A well-outfitted army of perhaps 500 men (Foard and Curry 39). Lord FitzHerbert The identity of FitzHerbert is in doubt, but his Herbert connection suggests the congregation of notable families to Richmond’s side. The use of Fitz potentially links this man to Sir Richard Herbert, bastard son of the earl of Pembroke. He was the elder brother but as a bastard did not inherit the title and was a notable figure under Henry VII. Alternately, Churchill proposes this man was really Sir Walter Herbert, second son of the first Herbert Earl of Pembroke (456). The father to both, Sir William Herbert, supported Richard III, but his inaction at Bosworth was telling (Ross 211). Sir Rhys … Thomas A Welsh landowner whom Richard III attempted to woo prior to Richmond’s landing, and demanded ransom of Sir Rhys’s son in exchange for his loyalty (as with George Stanley). Despite this threat, Sir Rhys has been noted as having greeted Richmond on landing in Wales and fought valiantly for him at Bosworth. Foard and Curry question this account and suggest Sir Rhys kept his decision until much closer to the battle (37). Poet Gut’or Glyn claims Sir Rhys struck the killing blow in Richard’s death (Griffith 43). He was an important figure under both Henry VII and Henry VIII (Griffiths). Sir … Williams Fictional Welsh lords, although it is likely that the former is a corruption of Sir Richard ap Thomas, mentioned by Hall (Hall 411). Thomas Dennis An unknown gentleman. Dennis does not physically appear in Q: this is his only mention as a Western gentleman. Churchill notes the following piece of trivia: in the sketch of the persons occupied in one act of a play on Richard found in the papers of Actor Edward Alleyn, the same name occurs. 3rd scene. Ansell, Dangr. Denys, Hen. Oxf. Courtney, Bouchier and Grace. To them Rice ap Tho. and his Souldiers. The other names would seem to indicate that here also Dennis was one of those who came to Henry Richmond. (456) While this is unlikely to be a company list from , the fact that historical names Hen. (Richmond), Oxf. (Oxford), Bouchier (archbishop), and Rice ap Tho. (Rhys ap Thomas) accompany that of Denys (Dennis) suggests that Dennis may be a forgotten figure from history. Arnold Butler Vergil reports that: the inhabitants of Pembroke, at the same very time, comforted all their dismayed minds, for they gave intelligence, by Arnold Butler, a valiant man, demanding forgiveness of their former offences, that they were ready to serve Jasper, their earl. (see Anglia Historia; 216) This refers to Jasper Tudor, earl of Pembroke and Richmond’s uncle. his treachery Butler supported both Yorkist and Lancastrian causes, hence Richmond’s reaction. The influence Butler brought, however, meant that in exchange for his pledge, he only asked for pardon for any service given to the Yorkists, which was readily agreed (Breverton, n.p.). Hall notes Butler was: a valiaunt capitain, which first askynge perdon for his offences before tyme committed against the erle of Richmond, and that obteyned, declared to hym that the penbrochians were ready to serue & geue their attendaunce on their natural and immediate lord lasper erle of Penbrooke. (Hall 410) reap up Bring up, expose unpleasantness ( reap, v.2.1). ’mends Amends, satisfaction ( amends, n.I.2). After Bosworth, Butler went into service under Rhys ap Thomas, where he trained young men in military discipline (Breverton, n.p.). Well, my … best This transition is awkwardly phrased in Q, aligned as verse but difficult to scan. While there are some structural hints that these may indeed be verse lines, including the abcb rhyme scheme (rest/best) that works if retained as printed, the scansion is unwieldy. Oxford and Richmond speak in prose prior to this line (see ), as Richmond prepares to move into his verse-based tactics (see ). The meter is so consistent later in this speech that the muddiness in this section suggests that this is a hangover from the prose structure of the previous lines. Secondarily, if we take the repetition of my lords as an indication towards a shift in tone (see ), then the second But now my lords can be read as a redirection into verse (see ). While this reading does omit a abcb rhyme, it also separates a very long line (But now … battle best) into a more manageable format (see ). battle Richmond’s battalion, either an entire army, or one of its main divisions ( battle, n.II.8.a). foremost … fight At the front of the battle formation. Holinshed notes that while Richmond sought Richard, he did not lead from the front, but had his battalions engage Richard’s troops before him: While the two fore wards thus mortally fought, each intending to vanquish and convince the other; king Richard was admonished by his explorators and espials, that the earl of Richmond (accompanied with a small number of men of arms) was not far off. And as he approached and marched toward him, he perfectly knew his personage by certain demonstrations and tokens, which he had learned and known of others that were able to give him full information. Now being inflamed with ire, and vexed with outrageous malice, he put his spurs to his horse, and rode out of the side of the range of his battle, leaving the vanguard fighting; and like a hungry lion ran with spear in rest toward him. The earl of Richmond perceived well the king furiously coming toward him, and because the whole hope of his wealth and purpose was to be determined by battle, he gladly proffered to encounter with him body to body, and man to man. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) vaward Foremost divisions, the vanguard or front line ( vaward, n.1.a). leading … rear Command of the rearguard battalions. He actually led the vanguard, so these positions are reversed: The earl of Oxford in the mean season, fearing least while his company was fighting, they should be compassed and circumvented with the multitude of the enemies, gave commandment in every rank, that no man should be so hardy, as to go above ten foot from the standard. Which commandment once known, they knit themselves together, and ceased a little from fighting. The adversaries suddenly abashed at the matter, and mistrusting some fraud and deceit, began also to pause and left striking; and not against the wills of many, which had rather had the king destroyed, than saved, and therefore they fought very faintly, or stood still. (see Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) by in quarters Stand in reserve, ready to join. Richmond’s well-organised reserve actions were crucial to his success. scouts Soldiers ahead of the main battle to gain information ( scout, n.4.2.a). Richmond’s commands seem dependent on such reconnaissance, but also anticipate the terrain that had, at this point, not yet been decided upon. Market Bosworth was settled long after Richmond’s landing in Wales. Without a sense of terrain, these tactics are impossible to rely upon. your bowmen … scatter Disperse the archers to offer shifting targets. Holinshed notes: When king Richard saw the earl’s company was past the marsh; he did command with all haste to set upon them. Then the trumpets sounded, and the soldiers shouted, and the king’s archers courageously let fly their arrows. The earl’s bowmen stood not still, but paid them home again. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) our promised friends Stanley’s troops. skirmish Close fighting between two bodies of troops ( skirmish, n.1). countermarch Reversal of direction in battle, to execute a pincer move on the enemy ( countermarch, n.1). casting Throwing of an arrow (Howlet, Castynge or throwynge of an arowe, batte, or Iauelyn). His description suggests plans for a flanking barrage. bravado Display in the face of the enemy, to offer battle ( bravado, n.1.b). Atherstone Atherstone Priory, some eight miles distant from Market Bosworth. Richmond spent the night at the Three Tuns Hostelry prior to the Battle of Bosworth and took communion there. Lichfield Lichfield is a cathedral city in Staffordshire, 16 miles north of Birmingham. The itinerary here is out of order: in fact, Richmond visited Lichfield on August 20, where he met Stanley: And after that the earl and he had communed no long time together; he reverted to his soldiers whom he had assembled together to serve the earl: which from thence departed to Lichfield, and lay without the walls in his camp all the night. (see Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) Richmond then traveled east from Lichfield to Atherstone on August 21, and on August 22 to Market Bosworth. nearer London Richmond intended to pass over the river of Severn at Shrewsbury, and so to pass directly to the city of London (Holinshed 435) to challenge Richard. Market Bosworth was the point the armies met. Where shall … king? The Page is loyal, but here betrays his king’s difficulty with conscience. Shakespeare dramatizes Richard’s guilt through a ghostly dream sequence ( 5.4.98–186). Here agitation transfers to the Page, who is unable to express sadness in the king’s presence. Walsh places this reaction in opposition to the Page’s earlier attitude as evidence the Page offers two responses to Richard, which gives the audience alternate choices against which to formulate their own response to the title figure and, by extension, the play itself (85). sore-troubled Sorely upset, greatly agitated. diadem The crown and its authority ( diadem, n.2). better … man Would be better off were he a commoner, or at least not in public office. Richard’s mental state derives from his methods of becoming king, a burden too great to bear. looks are ghastly Demeanor is grim, horrible, terrible, fearful (Cotgrave, Hideusement). This same term is used to describe the princes’ murderers (see ). Richard is turning self-destructively into his own victim by replicating the experience of his nephews. privy … heart Most intimate, deepest recesses of his being ( privy, adj.I.1.a). deep-fetched Most intimately buried, deep-seated, personal ( deep-fetched, adj.1). chamber Private quarters ( chamber, n.I.1.a). moves … company Compels me to grieve too so he does not grieve alone. Whether the Page is commanded or inspired to bewail Richard’s guilt is not stated, but his general demeanor suggests sympathy, or potentially fear for himself if he doesn’t sympathize with his king. stir Make a sudden noise or movement ( stir, v.I.1.a). whatsoe’er he be No matter who it is. the just … sins The expected punishment God has wrought for his actions. unkindly murderèd Killed in an underhanded or treacherous way. Shakespeare dramatizes each victim as judgmental ghosts (see 5.4.98.s.d.–5.4.186). he in justice God justifiably. at bed … board Both in sleep and waking. what noise It is uncertain what kind of noise the Page hears to announce the men as they enter. Whether it is a clamor of laughter, conversation, or the tramp of feet, it is certainly loud enough to distract the Page. camp Campaign, collection of troops ( camp, n.2.I.2.a). This does not imply a fixed campsite: the defectors will try to intercept Richmond’s forces as they march towards Bosworth. left to serve Abandoned the service of. these … villains Deserters. The Page sees Richard’s chances dwindle as he sees the troops Richard depended on begin to switch sides. make no … man Think no more of you than an ordinary man. as duty binds As I am obliged to do. advertisements Notifications, warnings ( advertisement, n.1.a). unjust proceedings Traitorous, immoral ( unjust, adj.1.a) actions, behaviors ( proceedings, n.2.a). lifted out Removed ( lift, v.11.a). left … all Richmond. Richard’s opinion of Richmond as a minor threat was his downfall. happened Occurring, going on ( happen, v.1). Oxford Oxford’s remonstration with Stanley does not appear in the chronicles, but does appear in Legge’s , suggesting the playwright’s familiarity with the earlier play (Churchill 477). it may … be I will not allow it. my father My step-father; see the earlier discussion (see ). have … yourself Please be careful. scouting abroad Reconnaissance, spying. disguised Richmond has left the safety of his camp, cloaked, to walk in solitude. This action matches the similar impulses of Shakespeare’s Henry V (see 4.1) and Richard III (see 5.4.200), who linger around their camps. mark Target an archer aims at ( mark, n.1.VI.23.a). The fifth instance of this repeated imagery (see ; ; ; ). last night’s absence Richmond strikes out without notice, which leaves his soldiers concerned he has deserted. amazement Bewilderment, doubt, paralysis ( amazement, n.1). more liker … fight Would be more likely to surrender or run than to stand and face the enemy. aloof off Separately, apart ( aloof, adv.2.a) from the others. confess myself bound Acknowledge I am beholden. especial care Particular concern. descry Catch sight of ( descry, v.1.I.1). thus forward So far advanced. laudable enterprise Valiant undertaking. Stanley makes it clear he strongly supports Richmond’s claim. omitting vain circumstances Ceasing to speak of useless matters. purpose Reason I am here ( purpose, n.2). much matter A great deal of important information. crave leave of Request an absence from. furiously Violently, vehemently ( furiously, adv.2). began … charge me Made an accusation. practices and drifts Movements and tactics. only of purpose For the sole reason. But omitting this These facts aside. An extremely indelicate, crude question, given the strain that George’s arrest has placed on Stanley. shall … help Can I count on your army? I cannot Stanley’s reaction hews to the traditional view of Stanley as non-committal, although he does tend towards Richmond in general. as I … thee While I will not fight to aid Richard, nor will I fight alongside you. bootless Hopeless, pointless ( bootless, adj.1.2). presumed Anticipated, expected, counted on ( presumed, adj.1). the time … troublesome There are more important things happening at the moment. tend to follow Waste time bothering with. expect no Do not trouble themselves with. gristle A tender or delicate person ( gristle, n.3). This word refers to his young malleable bones, which indicates he’s a particularly delicate boy. The point is that he is merely a young boy, not a youth or adult. goes … heart Saddens me. molehill … mountain Richmond adapts the familiar adage to make a mountain from a molehill (Tilley M1035). contrary Hostile, brash ( contrary, adj.3.a). chiefest … thee Majority of his men will likely defect to your side. simple Foolish, witless ( simple, adj.I.4.b). at my pleasure When I so choose. on thy … encountering To your side with very little combat. Bosworth Market Bosworth is a small community in Leicestershire, where Richmond’s eastward progress met Richard’s western progress. The battle took place in an open field south of the town. Yet In addition ( yet, adv.1.a). twenty thousand Estimates vary: Holinshed reports that Richard came with a huge host (Holinshed 438). Richard’s army has been estimated between 20,000 to 60,000, although the latter is likely exaggerated. Vergil conservatively pegs Richmond’s group at 5,000 (see Anglia Historia), but bolstered with Stanley’s force of 3,000 to 26,000, depending on source (Foard and Curry 39). hoping upon Depending on the inclusion of. The more … obtained The greater the challenge, the greater the glory in victory. attaining Reaching, achieving ( attaining, n.1). Richmond, … George A repetition of Richmond’s earlier English and Welsh imagery (see ). Quisqam … bonum Who rejoices in power? O, false boon! A paraphrased quotation from Seneca’s (Seneca 6). This comment on Richard’s hubris is set apart from the rest of Richmond’s speech, which calls its function into question. This quotation could have been inserted for the benefit of readers (meaning that it is not spoken on stage), or, much more likely, was spoken by Richmond at the end of his scene. Latin is spoken by Clarence’s Ghost and is repeated by Truth and Poetry in the play’s Prologue, which indicates that the playwright expects the audience to understand the phrasing. The phrasing in Q is slightly corrupted from the original quote in Seneca (quisquamne regno gaudet? ô fallax bonum!): the question mark is replaced with a comma, which alters the phrase to whoever rejoices in power, O false boon! or, more conversationally: What a false boon it is to he who rejoices in power. Tangentially, Ullyot examines Seneca’s influence in Legge’s Ricardus Tertius (111–114), which predates this play. Griffin notes Legge’s play, and its Senecan references, was familiar to the author of (69). Greg notes that the use of ô is irregular, as the corresponding word was Roman in the original (1929, x). Greg (1929, x) notes that Field was responsible for the restoration of this Latin to this phrasing. Given the quotation from Seneca and Q’s separation of this line from the body of the previous speech, this line has been rendered as verse. Churchill proposes this line is a decorative preface to the coming scene, a motto to its contents (459), but this is impossible to play without assigning it to an actor, so it remains here to close Richmond’s scene. hell … crown A thematic continuation of Richard’s earlier speech about the stresses and pressures of kingship, and guilt over murders in his wake (see ). At this stage Richard has seen more allies defect and the reality of invasion increase. The scene is now more desperate. wretched crews Miserable, pathetic troops. foe Members of Richmond’s army, largely defectors. horror … past Memory of past violent actions and murders that got me where I am. gaping With mouths open wide in agony ( gape, v.5). reaching Striving, competing. complains Wails, moans ( complain, v.I.3.a). pressing Urgently calling for ( pressing, adj.2.a). The sun … revenge Richard describes a series of chaotic images: sun, moon, and stars seeming to attack; planets abandoning their proper order; prophetic birds foretelling doom; and both newborn animals and herds of mature cattle crying out against Richard’s rule. Richard’s natural, animal, and astrological images escalate to encapsulate his feeling that all the world wishes revenge on him, as he transforms everything he sees into an indictment of his guilt. The unwinding verse structure transitions from end-stopped blank verse: the form which madness cannot sustain. Prose takes over instead as Richard’s mind gives way—prose which does not entirely lose contact with iambic pentameter, but which breaks through the regularity which the writers for the Queen’s Men assigned to blank verse. (McMillin and MacLean 152) Richard’s list-making indicates a lost grasp on his situation and sanity. eclipseth Is hidden by the shadow of the sun. Richard’s assertion that such chaos is a nightly occurrence exaggerates what he interprets as foreboding omens. See earlier Richard’s regular shadow imagery (see ; ). sorrow Cry mournfully. silly Helpless, defenseless ( silly, adj.II.2). Whole heads Entire herds ( head, n.1.I.ii.10.b). deserved revenge Earned punishment for my actions. Richard accepts he has sinned sufficiently to justify that the world wishes him to be punished. In company Among friends ( company, n.2.a). doubt Mistrust ( doubt, v.I.2.a). uncouth Unpleasant, uncomfortable ( uncouth, adj.5.b). refrains Represses ( refrain, v.2.a). The sentence is inverted: My head represses sleep rest. far worse … death Richard claims his life of fear is worse than a thousand deaths. How, wast … said Wait, did I just say death? never-dying mind Undying memory; Richard’s legacy is his certainty of being remembered amongst his followers. pressing so near Getting so close to me. our friends Lord Stanley. quite laid abed Disabled, immobilized ( abed, adv.2). Lovell By sharing lines with Lovell, his close associate, Richard manages to work Lovell up to the same rage he himself feels, so that Lovell curses those who betrayed Richard with lies. Richard is so far gone that he raves to himself until brought back to his senses enough to abuse Lovell for his presumption. light … heads Descend on you ( light, v.1.II.7). untruth Lack of loyalty ( untruth, n.1), potentially lack of faith ( untruth, n.2). Now … come Richard’s restoration to is evocative of the same moment in Shakespeare (see 5.4.199), and indirectly, Cibber’s Conscience avaunt, Richard’s himself again (Cibber 5.4). Sour … delight Sweet things that delight Richard are sour to his enemies. Lovell mixes his terms and confuses the difference between good and evil, as a further sign of chaos. Lovell invokes scripture: Woe unto them that speak good of evil, and evil of good, which put darkness for light, and light for darkness, that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for sour (GNV, Isaiah 5.20). great … overthrow It would need to be a mighty army that could challenge your power. is not … me Does not bother me as much as it does to see my former allies defect. rest yourself content Be reassured. power enough A large enough army. set … land Cross the Channel into Britain. Richmond’s daring to set foot on British soil is an escalation Richard will not brook; that action is very different from Richmond’s threats from Brittany, which Richard did not take seriously. straggling fugitives Weak outcasts. participate the cause Share ( participate, v.3.a) the reason ( cause, n.I.1.a). buzzard Worthless fool ( buzzard, n.1.2.a). Also, the irritating buzz Richard hears in Lovell’s interjections. by post … hell Have you killed. Yet again, villain A darkly humorous moment, eliciting a nervous titter from the audience and those on stage, where Richard believes Lovell has dared speak even after he has been threatened with death for any further noise. comes Approaches ( come, v.I.1.a). left … Stanley Stanley’s gamble is based on his knowledge that his second son, Sir Edward Stanley, could still inherit his estate as the earl of Derby. bastard’s George Stanley’s. Richard’s epithet is a non-literal insult: George was born several years after his parents’ marriage, and so is rightful heir. haunt … heels Tenaciously follow him. I butcher … dead I will kill George Stanley in revenge for the dead soldiers that will result from his father’s decision. his sire Stanley. Leave … now Catesby’s rebuke is surprising, given Richard’s instability and how apt he is to lash out. This indicates the collective stress that this invasion is causing. Catesby’s appeal is repeated by Shakespeare (see 5.5.73–74). foe … foes Don’t talk to me of enemies. guiltless blood Innocence: Lovell displays a moral concern by acknowledging George’s youth. greatly injured him Is directly responsible for his death. Bonds … assigned promise and compact that he swore to. What though … resign Even if you have decided on the outcome and have taken his titles. Lovell argues killing George will make no difference to Stanley. In doing … justice Given that Richard has just threatened him, Lovell’s resistance over George is a striking moment of tension where he commits to what is just and good. As Richard appeals to his retinue, he finds resistance from Lovell, but also from the Page and Catesby, who stand in solidarity to refuse their commands. neglect his word Broken his promise. impartial … sword Has rendered his past neutrality irrelevant by his aggressive actions. Draw you cuts Draw straws, make a decision ( cut n.1.1.a). The Page and Lovell are compelled to draw cuts over the matter, but Richard’s immediate command to Catesby suggests that the Page and Lovell do not do as commanded. we are … one Not a literal assessment of their army sizes, but a gambling term, to suggest that Richard’s forces are more likely to prevail. Richard’s odds are a crutch to which he returns with reassurance that, even without Stanley, he still commands the larger force. promotion Advancement, preferment ( promotion, n.1.a). already … than he Currently with the king’s power, a proven ruler, unlike Richmond. Lovell, Catesby The addition of the Page and other attendants to this scene paints a vivid picture as Richard excludes all but his two closest attendants in this appeal. The Page is either actively excluded for his disobedience or is ignored for his unimportance. join … devoutly Gather in prayer. A final desperate spiritual gesture from a man resigned to damnation. divide … amongst you Richard’s desperation extends to promising riches and fortune, and obliquely evokes Leir’s division of his kingdom. dog An allusion to a nickname for Catesby (as in cat and dog), and Lovell’s family symbol of a wolf, which earned him the epithet the dog in Collingbourne’s doggerel poem (see ). courage Confidence, boldness ( courage, n.3.d). join … only Richard’s bravura reaches its peak, as he challenges double the population of England, Europe, Christendom, and the entire world, vowing he will not surrender until death. by death … fame I will not die for spite, which is a childish reaction: but even were the devil to claim my crown, I would defeat him, and even if Fortune herself had determined that I were to fall, then death would ensure my immortality. Richard’s thoughts jump around in this speech, his mental turmoil betrayed by fragmented statements and partial thoughts. His indecision about how he will accept his fate verbalizes the fears in his mind. Despite it all, however, he remains defiant. decreed Determined, resolved, decided ( decree, v.4). set … head Take vengeance by assuring victory for my opponent at my expense. latest Last, final ( latest, adj.1). note repetition (see ). lame … mine My withered arm. Richard has already accused the Mother Queen and Shore’s wife of conspiring to bewitch his arm (see ). A late reminder of Richard’s disability, apparent to the audience, but rarely noted in dialogue. rake out Violently chase and confuse ( rake, v.1.3.a). A falconry term: Richard plans to mislead or separate Richmond from his army, thus having the chance to attack him alone. But the term also implies the physical violence of dragging or harrowing the body, as one would scratch, scrape, or claw the ground with the teeth of an iron rake (Thomas, Scalpo), weeding out the enemy. eat … poison me This final gruesome image indicates the depth of Richard’s hatred, a berserker-like depth of fanaticism in victory. These words show Richard’s mental state as he prepares for and enters the battle, which occurs in next scene. Sirs … yourselves Richard’s final, defiant direction calls for loyalty or death: those who do not support him are better to kill themselves. resolute Constant, firm, steadfast (Florio, Costante). Richard uses this word for the first time in this play since his brother, Edward IV, used it twice on his deathbed (see ). In both cases, the kings refer to unshakeable conviction as a challenge to their followers. The battle enters Shorthand for an extended, choreographed, skilled scene of stage combat. The Queen’s Men were expert swordsmen, and this stage direction indicates a prolonged entrance of soldiers to the fray. This would have been a chaotic, dangerous, noisy, thrilling scene for the audience, who get a privileged view of the battle, perhaps with isolated face-offs between named characters and soldiers. As the battle progressed, characters might be wounded or killed, necessitating exits or the creation of human obstacles as bodies fell. As the action climax to the play, this would have been a very busy scene, and might have continued for some minutes. For further insight into the Queen’s Men’s expertise with swords, see Roberts-Smith, 2007. McMillin and MacLean offer their perspective that this phrase is: shorthand description for the staging of the fight in which Richard is wounded, but because the scene is wordless, the wounding is not conveyed in the text: the entrance direction’s Richard wounded names what will happen during the wordless battle (129) Further, rather than indicate corruption or text piracy, McMillin and MacLean propose this shorthand as the way the Queen’s Men worked out their battle scenes, by pantomime and wordlessness (130). A horse … horse! The origin of this most recognizable line in this and Shakespeare’s play (see 5.6.7). As noted below, Richard refused conveyance for retreat (see ). Wilson suggests Hall’s they brought to hym a swyfte and a light horse to conuey hym away (420) and Peele’s : A horse, a horse, villain, a horse / That I make take the riuer straight and flie (306). fly, … life The Page deserves credit for doing what he said he’d do: he serves his king, without giving opinions on which side is legitimate or has more right. There is no indication that the Page and Richard are alone on stage, although no other characters are named. If this scene includes enemy soldiers attacking Richard (perhaps repelled by the Page or Richard himself), these lines would be spoken in a shout, or at least with great urgency. Clearly the Page has identified an opportunity for Richard to leave the field, so there cannot be a large collection of extras on stage, but they are still amid the fray. As Vergil notes (see Anglia Historia), immediately prior to Richard’s death, he had been almost entirely abandoned by his men, leaving the Page as his last remaining ally. As Wilson observes (305), this was likely inspired by Hall: Richard’s followers began to suspect fraud and to smell treason, and not only exhorted but determinately advised him to save himself by flight (see The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York). Look … would fly Holinshed records: And when the loss of the battle was imminent and apparent, they brought to him a swift and a light horse, to convey him away. He which was not ignorant of the grudge and ill will that the common people bore toward him, casting away all hope of fortunate success and happy chance to come, answered (as men say) that on that day he would make an end of all battles, or else there finish his life. Such a great audacity and such a stomach reigned in his body. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) watery … roll on Let the rains continue. Richard, close to defeat, sees his own fate in the state of the field, mud, gloom and rain which bogged down the battle, exhausted the troops, and ultimately made decisive Stanley’s intervention with a fresh battalion. cheerful sound Willing; ungrudging ( cheerful, adj.3) fall, swoon ( sound, n.4.1.a). The clouds that lour over the battlefield are oppressive, and press Richard into the waiting earth, but he is happy to die a fighting king, defending his own until the last. thy sun An allusion to the Plantagenet ensign, the rising sun. Richard uses this reference as a pathetic fallacy of gloom, incorporating the idea of a setting sun and a loss of life and kingship. feathers … head As a garland in victory ( feather, n.II.8.b), earned on the battlefield but feather or plume worn afterwards on the hat. Many soldiers would self-adorn with feathers, faking past valor which often earned the label fool or poseur. Richard recognizes his folly in pretending he can still win, and explicitly says the birds dare not come near him. For Richard, his best hope is the one he ends with—telling his tale in hell. Fortune Richard knows, by his earlier appeal to Fortune, that he must face the coming fall, now beyond his control (see ). quiet crown Kingship unthreatened by potential usurpers. Fates deny In later Greek and Roman mythology, the Fates were three goddesses (Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos; later Nona, Decuma, and Morta) supposed to determine the course of human life ( fate, n.2.b). Unlike Fortune, who controlled good luck, the Fates determined an overall mortal plan. Richard recognizes his life is no longer in his own hands. As the last time we see Richard alive on stage, the audience is left with a reflective, cathartic moment of humanity, showing the bravery and tenacity of a man who had lost touch with these characteristics as he rose to power. Now, he appears focused on the way in which he embraces his end. golden thoughts Ambitious desires. daunted Tamed, subdued, brought under control ( daunted, adj.1). spite Contempt, ill-will, malice ( spite, n.2.a). drooping Dejected, depressed, dispirited, despondent ( drooping, adj.3). my last My last words, my last moments. damned souls Given his actions, Richard is under none of the illusions of Edward IV who thought himself bound for Heaven (see ). Richard knows he himself is damned. Exit the Page Q’s singular Exit offers little clarity on who is to leave the stage, but without a new entrance for Richard, it is safe to assume that he does not exit, but instead Richmond confronts him as part of the same scene. The Page’s exit alone allows for the climactic battle to commence without Richard requiring an exit. A clamor of noise offstage is sufficient to frighten the Page into abandoning his master and gives Richmond’s forces an entry point to surround Richard. This solves the whereabouts of the Page during this final battle, and while his absence complicates his later account of the battle to Report, it gives a layered comment on the accuracy of the Report, as told by one who was not a direct eyewitness. The Page later describes the sound of trumpet and drum during Richard’s final battle, as Richmond has called for his men to charge. Enter Richmond … again Richmond confronts Richard while other skirmishes potentially play out around the stage between soldiers. As Vergil notes, Richard died fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies, having been abandoned by his men, so this reflects that moment (see Anglia Historia). There would have been a great deal of action to accompany this entrance, with Richmond’s troops fighting with troops loyal to Richard. These nameless troops represented the last line of defense before reaching Richard, and once he is finally surrounded and outnumbered, Richmond is afforded the honor of taking the final battle. As discussed above (see ), McMillin and MacLean suggest battle stage directions encompass robust wordless scenes: strangely segmented, with wordless battles set apart from moments of speech, as though the battles were thought of as having a text of their own (129). There are many text-based battle scenes, but the serious battles tend to be wordless (130). The seriousness of the fencing scenes required great concentration to ensure no one was injured, so dialogue is not prioritized. kills Richard Richmond as Richard’s killer is romantic, apocryphal, and ahistorical, but appears here and in Shakespeare. Vergil reports Richard’s death: Henry perceived King Richard come upon him, and because all his hope was than in valiancy of arms, he received him with great courage. King Richard, at the first brunt, killed certain, overthrew Henry’s standard, together with William Brandon, the standard bearer, and matched also with John Cheney, a man of much fortitude, far exceeding the common sort, who encountered with him as he came, but the king with great force drove him to the ground, making way with weapon on every side. But yet Henry abode the brunt longer than ever his own soldiers would have wend, who were now almost out of hope of victory, when as lo William Stanley with three thousand men came to the rescue: than truly in a very moment the residue all fled, and king Richard alone was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies. (see Anglia Historia; 224) As noted, tradition suggests the killing blow was laid by Sir Rhys ap Thomas (see ). Exeunt Richmond … body Richard’s body needs to be removed from the stage to allow the play to move forward, and a ceremonial progression affords a sense of respect in death for Richmond’s defeated foe. This moment could be played in multiple ways, depending on how many of Richmond’s troops are on stage. More may enter to bear him away, or Richmond could even offer his assistance. Potentially, Richmond dons Richard’s crown and exits the stage, leaving the body to be cleared by Richmond’s soldiers. Each option is a potentially striking stage picture. Report An allegorical figure who represents the retelling of history and rumor. An unusual instance of interaction between allegorical and non-allegorical characters (Wiggins 489). There is no indication as to how Report would be attired, but Ripa records Rumor as a man arm’d with a coat of mail of divers colours; throwing of darts every where the Darts show flying Reports among the multitude the Coat of Mail of different Colours, the diversity of Opinions of the Rabble (66). This is a similar allegorical attiring to the character of Rumor, a figure who always wore a suit of tongues, including his appearance in the prologue of . the Page As he exits prior to Richard’s death, the resourceful Page must have hidden or eluded Richmond’s soldiers long enough to weather the end of the battle. Unless the actor had chosen to hide in view of the audience during the end of the battle, a choice that justifies his information about the fray, much of what he is to say is spurious or guessed, as he has not necessarily witnessed Richard’s final moments. certain true report A good accurate account. victorious Concluded. Report does not know the outcome but knows one side has prevailed. Walsh notes the belatedness of Report’s arrival as a comment on unreliable non-eyewitness historical accounts (88). whate’er thou be’st Whoever you are, whatever side you are on. field Battlefield. triumphs … conqueror Celebrates his bold or courageous conquest as appropriate for the successful military leader. The Page evokes the Roman triumphs, ceremonial processions to celebrate a successful military victory, particularly a foreign war. Such an association emphasizes Richmond’s role as the victorious new king. duke of Norfolk Norfolk is not in this play, but was the highest-profile Bosworth victim, as Holinshed notes: of the nobility were slain John duke of Norfolk, which was warned by diverse to refrain from the field, in so much that the night before he should set forward toward the king, one wrote this rhyme upon his gate: Jack of Norfolk be not too bold, / For Dickon thy master is bought and sold. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) Norfolk and the famous Jack of Norfolk note appear in Shakespeare (see 5.5.33–34). Brakenbury Brakenbury died at Bosworth, and in the battle’s aftermath, he was attainted and his lands were forfeited. Lovell Lovell was amongst them that ran away and who took sanctuary in Saint John’s at Gloucester (see Holinshed Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland; Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland). Lovell’s allegiance to Richard, whether due to loyalty or fear, made his apprehension a priority, although he managed to evade capture long enough to oppose Richmond again. He fomented rebellion on several occasions after Bosworth He was next seen in support of the pretender Lambert Simnel who initially claimed to be the younger of the two princes who died in the Tower, and then the son of Clarence. Lovell remained an opponent to Henry VII and either died at the Battle of Stoke (1487) or vanished before he could be apprehended. Bacon suggested that he had lived on after Stoke by living in a cave or vault (37), and a skeleton discovered in 1708 secreted at his family manor of Minster Lovell has been suggested to be Lovell. This is unlikely, due to Lovell’s only passing acquaintance with Minster Lovell (Horrox). besides As well as. made … tragedy Was accessory to Richard’s reign of terror. He is … beheaded Catesby’s execution in Leicester so soon after the battle shows time is compacted. Holinshed reports after Richard died, Catesby two days after was beheaded at Leicester (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland). took part Fought on the side of. brief discourse Holinshed offers a detailed report on the action, which differs markedly from the Page’s description. See Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland for this account. fell Came to pass ( fall, v.VI.51.a). The Page’s detailed account offers many clues about how Richard’s death would be staged, including information on Richmond’s troop numbers, the sound of the charge, and the presence of horses. As the Page is potentially embellishing his story based on what little he saw, this lends little credence to the truth behind the historical report. mounted on horseback Richard’s horseback appearance in battle was unusual: ordinarily a reigning king was protected in the rearguard to ensure the figurehead stood. See note at . high resolve Firm intention ( resolve, n.1.a). fierce … Greeks The first mythologizing of Richard’s death, whether or not it matches with the events of the final battle that the audience have witnessed. The Page likens Richard’s valor to Achilles in the Trojan war, which speaks to the bravery depicted on stage, but hyperbolically extends his acts. This analogy complicates the reliability of historical accounts as the Page spins Richard’s acts (Walsh 89), or perhaps the Page gives the Yorkist view, just as Richmond (and Shakespeare) will later give the Tudor view. encounter Confront, assail ( encounter, v.1.a). The first of three variants on this word in twenty lines, which generically depicts confrontation (see ; ). worthy Honorable, estimable ( worthy, v.2). accompanied with Surrounded by. displayed … straight Showed his banner boldly. Richard is determined to die like a king, and he is described as honorable action in battle, even though his followers have either deserted or died. Richard’s banner, borne by Sir Percival Thirlwall, was raised to announce his presence as he charged Richmond, as noted in the anonymous (see Supplementary Texts). The raising of Richard’s colors in his final battle might have been an additional moment of defiance in staging his death. charge … fife Traditional martial instruments used to signal an attack, especially a rushing assault that leaves the enemy no time to think or to re-deploy the battalions. straight encountered Clashed head-on. gan faint Became tired. fly Retreat, flee. True reportage, as the Page had urged just that (see ). followed honor Died valiantly. threw … wounded Holinshed supports Richard’s bravery: with which too much hardiness he being overcome, hastily closed his helmet, and entered fiercely into the hard battle, to the intent to obtain that day a quiet reign and regiment; or else to finish there his unquiet life, and unfortunate governance. And so, this miser at the same very point had like chance and fortune, as happeneth to such which in place of right justice and honesty, following their sensual appetite, love, and use to embrace mischief, tyranny, and unthriftiness. Surely these be examples of more vehemency, than man’s tongue can express, to fear and astonish such evil persons, as will not live one hour vacant from doing and exercising cruelty, mischief, or outrageous living. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) ne’er recovered strength Died where he fell. master … yield As Richard had promised, he fought until his death. The word yield implies giving back what he had taken, and perhaps suffering public execution before a hostile mob, humiliating and felt as cowardly. because passive. Richard’s decision to fight to the death is his final (and perhaps only) show of true honor. Exit … remains. Q has no exit line for the Page or Report. The stage will soon become crowded with Richmond’s victorious army, and Report would logically stay to observe in order to fulfill his reportage. The Page, as a visible member of Richard’s retinue, would slip out of sight for his own safety. crown Legend says Richard wore his crown to battle—a conspicuous target—and after his death it was found and presented to Richmond. Vergil reports: which, when Thomas Stanley did see, he set anon King Richard’s crown, which was found among the spoil in the field, upon his head, as though he had been already by commandment of the people proclaimed king after the manner of his ancestors. (see Anglia Historia) The apocryphal detail of Richard’s crown found in a hawthorn bush is a seventeenth century embellishment (Henderson 237–238). fortune … day Despite the odds, Richmond’s faction easily carried the day at Bosworth with little loss of noble life (see ). fitting your deserts Befitting what you have earned ( desert, n.1.1.a). hot encountering The heat of close combat. binds Pledges, swears ( bind, IV.15.b). unity Richmond’s victory unified the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions and effectively ended the wars of the roses. those … lost Vergil records Richmond’s losses as slight: Henry lost in that battle scarce a hundred soldiers, amongst whom there was one principal man, William Brandon, who bore earl Henry’s standard (see Anglia Historia; 225). Holinshed names only two noble victims on Richmond’s side: King Richard set on so sharply at the first brunt, that he overthrew the earl’s standard, and slew Sir William Brandon his standard bearer (which was father to Sir Charles Brandon by king Henry the eighth created duke of Suffolk) and matched hand to hand with Sir John Cheney, a man of great force and strength, which would have resisted him: but the said John was by him manfully overthrown. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) maintain … pay Support and provide for them ( maintain, v.I.1.a) with a generous allowance ( manual, adj.6). loving father Stanley. not the least Richmond leaves Stanley the final position of honor by design, in reflection of Stanley’s important intervention but also in reflection of the character’s ancestry with Lord Strange, Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby (1559–1594), a notable cultural patron (Manley and MacLean 26). unlooked-for aid Unexpected help. Richmond did not count on Stanley’s help, and as Manley notes it is not clear whether Stanley acted positively on behalf of Richmond or merely refused to come to Richard’s assistance (170). on sudden Without warning ( sudden, adj.1.b). in nature Genuinely ( nature, n.P.8.a). worth Great integrity ( worth, n.1.II.6.a). enemies Stanley refers to remaining Yorkists who would emerge in rebellion after Bosworth (see ). common … consent Holinshed records Stanley’s acclamation: When the lord Stanley saw the good will and gladness of the people, he took the crown of king Richard which was found amongst the spoil in the field, and set it on the earl’s head; as though he had been elected king by the voice of the people, as in ancient times past in diverse realms it hath been accustomed: and this was the first sign and token of his good luck and felicity. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) combat them Suppress rebellion. Caesar Julius Caesar (100–44BCE), Roman Emperor, who conquered Gaul (58–50BCE), and spread Roman influence into Egypt and throughout Europe. Oxford hyperbolically compares Richmond’s conquest to the spread of the Roman Empire yet indelicately forgets Caesar’s death at the hands of former allies. doubt not Have no doubt. fair Fortune References to Fortune come full-circle, discussed by Shore’s wife and Richard as the fickle goddess to whom each appealed (see ; ). Hector … senators Oxford suggests Richmond is a giant among men. Hector was the greatest of the Trojan warriors, who died in combat with the Achilles after the gods’ interference (Homer, Iliad, book 22). Marcus Tullius Cicero, or Tully, was a highly respected Roman orator, lawyer, and senator, whose philosophical letters (discovered by Petrarch) ignited the Renaissance. Enter Mother … Elizabeth This relocated stage direction means that Richmond directly addresses the Mother Queen, rather than anticipate her entrance. fortune … day Victory in the battle. Lord Marquess Dorset While it seems unusual the Mother Queen does not know where her son is, Dorset was supposed to fight at Bosworth, but was delayed. He lived in exile for over two years in Brittany and participated in Richmond’s 1483 invasion attempt. Dorset almost rejoined Richard prior to Bosworth, but was prevented from leaving France, and, as noted, was held as a war debt to France (see ). He rejoined his family after Henry VII took power (Hicks). murdered One of the fallen in battle. doth live Is alive. driven … tempest Richmond’s failed invasion of 1483 was ruined by unexpected storms. enforced Left no other choice ( enforced, adj.2). ask … men Charles VIII provided French mercenaries who made up half of Richmond’s force (Skidmore 224). Major records the assistance: Inasmuch as he had been long a dweller in France, Charles the Eighth granted Richmond an aid of five thousand men (of whom one thousand were Scots) (393). This was crucial for Richmond, as a smaller invading force may have struggled to attract English soldiers. This assistance was clearly strategic in the hopes of gaining the support of a conquering king. munition Weaponry, martial supplies ( munition, n.4.a). Richard accuses Stanley of providing these supplies earlier: Richmond’s need to ask them of France suggests Stanley was innocent, or the embargo succeeded (see ). hostage Pledge, security, assurance ( hostage, n.1.1). Dorset … pledge Dorset was held along with John Bourchier, Lord Berners, as assurance for a debt Richmond owed Charles VIII, but this was financial, not in exchange for mercenaries (Hicks). Here the two events are conflated. our troubled war Richmond’s invasion and successful overthrow of Richard. Richmond characterizes this as troubled because of the length of time it took to complete, after his disastrous prior attempt in 1483. shall … again Exiled for two years, Dorset had all his lost lands and titles returned. God … guide Richmond’s piety is validated with victory against the odds and vindicates his sense of God approving his claim. keep … effectually Fulfil our promises exactly. happy battle’s Victorious army’s. make bold … promise Be so audacious as to ask you to keep an assurance or agreement. marriage of Elizabeth As noted, Richmond declared his intention for Elizabeth the previous December, but as of this moment his proposal has not been accepted by the Mother Queen or Elizabeth (see ). my due What I have earned. in that Because. by election Stanley speaks informally and anachronistically. Richmond has slain the previous king, so has claimed the throne by conquest and there is no need for an approving council meeting: no such mechanism was in place at the time. The council in Shakespeare’s play meets to confirm coronation date, not to confirm right to inherit (see 3.4.1). Tradition says Richmond proclaimed his kingship on the battlefield, crowned by popular acclamation (see ). Indeed, the prominence of election among Richmond’s claims through marriage, lineage and conquest further legitimizes the Tudor dynasty, but it also stakes a claim for the peerage in the process of determining the future of the English monarchy (Bezio 73). First … virtuous Primarily because they see you as pious and good. foreign broils Wars with neighboring countries. With allegiance to both France and Brittany and Richard’s truce with Scotland, Richmond’s followers hoped for sustained peace. Aside from minor rebellions, Henry VII presided over peace until a 1497 rebellion in Scotland (see ). England, … Ireland Oxford’s proclamation encompasses Richmond’s realms and anachronistically conflates Wales into England, which would not be incorporated until 1542, in the rule of Henry VIII. He is proclaimed king of France despite assistance offered by the French king, but this is limited to his rule over the English-controlled territory of Calais. The English lost their control over areas on the western coast of France, including Bordeaux and the Dordogne, after the death of Henry V. The English later occupied Boulogne-Sur-Mer briefly (1544–1550) but Calais was the last English bastion in France. Richmond’s third title, lord of Ireland, is a twelfth-century title established by King John, passed to each subsequent king of England until Henry VIII made himself king of Ireland in 1542. All This traditional response encompasses public proclamation and acceptance of the title, now formally read for public approval at locations around the English and Scottish kingdoms, including London, York, Windsor, and Edinburgh. root abuses Uncover crimes. commonwealth Body of citizens, collective group of subjects. now flows faster Richard’s wrongs are exacerbated to emphasise the correction Richmond’s rule offers. Richmond looks to quash the uncertainty that arose after Edward IV’s death (see ). Nile The annual flooding of the Nile is a powerful natural phenomenon compared to wide-spread evils Richmond seeks to stamp out. still … dispose With the greatest of intentions fulfill my promise to be your servant. longer … love Richmond’s vow is to live only as he fulfills his oath, which he accuses Richard of failing to do. Elizabeth This is Elizabeth’s first appearance since sanctuary, which means her marriage has been discussed entirely without her, or at least has been kept confidential offstage (see ). must Want to. crave … resolve Wish to have an answer on how you have decided. Richmond’s noun/verb repetition emphasizes the coming resolution of the war. touching … unto you Regarding the proposal of marriage I have given you. condescend Willingly yield, submit, agree (Thomas, Concēdo). please Is agreeable to ( please, v.I.2.a). in duty With respect, deferentially ( duty, n.1.a). aged … age Elizabeth emphasizes the conventional respect experience has earned her parents. She defers to her mother but has also proven herself canny and mature in her earlier dealings, so she is no pawn in these proceedings. do commit … dispose Will do whatever she tells me I should. ay Ever, always ( aye, adv.1.1). The first of three uses of this word emphasizes the optimism of this resolution (see ). if I live While I am alive. make account Hold resolution, have expectation ( account, n.IV.10). more … love Greater generosity of heart than expected. now were but If only. happy … meeting then Joyous would this reunion be. ’turn in safe Return undamaged. he that … blood One that takes pleasure in killing. two messengers Both messengers stay for the epilogue. Roberts-Smith suggests these messengers are played by the boys who play the young princes, so the final scene is a family reunion tableau (2012, 198). The same argument posits these boys played Truth and Poetry, a contention supported by McMillin and MacLean (107). with great danger At considerable personal risk. enclosed … earth George associates his imprisonment with a helpless lamb kept alive in a wolf’s den, expecting death. even … danger Fresh from this fear. come … guest Approach to offer homage. George … emotion George’s repetition indicates his incorporation of the Messengers who have liberated him, as he emotionally acknowledges the risk they took by delaying his execution. The Messengers might stand forth to accept the gratitude of both Stanleys, and even the new king. post him off Divert him, distract him. alleging … rage The Messengers’ diversionary tactics resemble those attempted by Catesby and Lovell (see ). battles joined Armies clashed. these … away These men and other friends protected me from harm, freed me from bondage. The messengers appear to have been Richard’s servants or guards who have defected to Richmond to bring George home. Richard— This short line potentially allows the actor playing Richmond to show his disdain for speaking Richard’s name, be it a spit or a glare at those around him. Despite his honor in removing Richard’s body ceremonially from the battlefield, he is still able to show his distaste for him, which is furthered by his parading of Richard’s body through Leicester. will Promise to see that. drawn … laid This public display, called carting, was a pious display of the evil source of England’s troubles, much in the way that bailiffs would display criminals on their way to be punished. This is also a form of Roman triumph, an emphasis of the victor’s achievement. Holinshed writes with shame of the desecration of Richard’s body: the dead corpse of king Richard was as shamefully carried to the town of Leicester, as he gorgeously (the day before) with pomp and pride departed out of the same town. For his body was naked and despoiled to the skin, and nothing left about him, not so much as a clout to cover his privy members, and was trussed behind a pursuant of arms, one Blanch Senglier, or White boar, like a hog or calf, his head and arms hanging on the one side of the horse, and his legs on the other side, and all besprinkled with mire and blood he was brought to the Greyfriars church within the town, and there lay like a miserable spectacle. (see Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland) Richard’s skeleton was discovered in the remains of the Greyfriars friary in 2012. collier’s horse A mean, low-status beast of burden, in stark contrast to the fine charger he rode into battle. This choice of steed is intentional, lowering the dead king of England on to an animal used for carrying coals for a collier, or coal-miner. The collier’s horse literally had the lowest, blackest job there was in the coal mines. of others’ … regard He did not care about other people. traitor’s due reward The display of Richard’s corpse was a grim public warning for the price of treason. abbey … next An anachronism; the battle itself was waged on August 22nd, 1485, and Richmond does not propose he wait a year until marriage. Richmond was crowned on October 30, 1485, his marriage solemnized on 18 January 1486. Elizabeth was crowned queen almost two years later, in November 1487. Set forwards March on. take … state Bring peace and reason back to the kingdom. The Mother … Messengers This stage direction allows the bulk of the company to clear the space for the four boys to close the play, and while there is little evidence to support this clearing of the space, as Walsh observes, the stage would be crowded with between ten and fourteen actors (100–101). This might result in a communal moment (Walsh 101), with an isolation of the four epilogue speakers. gentles Gentry (ladies and gentlemen) in the audience, in direct address from the stage. The messenger uses the same address as Truth in the prologue (see ), which cements the connection in the doubled casting (Walsh 98). these houses York and Lancaster. Solomon A king of Israel (c.970–931 BCE) so renowned as a wise, fair judge that his name remains synonymous with wisdom. The Solomon-like wisdom of Henry VII, as the holy unifier of York and Lancaster, was a common Tudor epithet. Solomon’s wisdom lay in his piety and strength of prayer (GNV 1 Kings 3.4–5), which associates with Richmond’s triumph. In 1621 Francis Bacon used this image, calling Henry this Solomon of England, but in this case, it was because Solomon was also too heavy upon his people in exactions (211). Here the association is based on Richmond’s wit and wisdom. government … every way Rule was fair and honest in all matters. wondrously increase Bless with children. Henry and Elizabeth had eight children, including the future Henry VIII, along with Margaret and Mary Tudor, both of whom were grandmothers to Mary, queen of Scots and Lady Jane Grey, claimants to the English throne. subdue … Blackheath Richmond survived several uprisings, but this refers to the Cornish rebellion of 1497. Henry levied taxes for his Scottish wars, and met resistance led by James Tuchet, 7th baron Audley, whose forces were subdued at the battle of Deptford Bridge on 15 June 1497 (Gunn). Baron Audley was executed at Tower Hill for his treason. This is the only uprising the playwright notes, despite significant incursions by rebels who supported a Yorkist pretender. Attempts to elevate Lambert Simnel (supposedly son to Clarence, 1487) and Perkin Warbeck (supposedly the younger prince in the Tower, 1490) were both quashed. To note these campaigns is to question the king’s legitimacy. three … years Richmond ruled from 22 August 1485 until 21 April 1509. Westminster Burial site of Henry, who was buried alongside Elizabeth Woodville in the Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey. Six other monarchs, including Elizabeth I, are buried in the same chapel. son Henry VIII, who ruled from April 1509 to January 1547. victorious Highly successful ( victorious, adj.2). fifth … France Henry invaded France in 1513 as part of a pact with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, in the Holy League. Thérouanne and Tournai The battle of the Spurs, on 16 August 1513, saw Henry’s force support Maximilian to surprise a French cavalry battalion outnumbered four to one. This minor diplomatic victory won Thérouanne and Tournai and was valuable propaganda. emperor Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. served … pay Mercenary arrangement: the emperor offered Henry VIII his service in exchange for money. Henry VIII paid Maximilian a daily fee for his support (Ives). as a … him Maximilian’s participation had little to do with loyalty and more with financial return. Morlaix English troops attacked Morlaix in 1522 in retaliation for Breton piracy in Bristol, and found the port deserted. After English sacked Morlaix, Bretons built the forbidding Château du Taureau fortification to protect against future attacks. at a bay In line. decreasing age Advancing years, lessening vitality. Boulogne Henry invaded France in July 1545 with 40,000 men in support of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Henry besieged Montreuil and Boulogne; the latter capitulated on 14 September 1545 and was held by the English for eight years (Ives). after … home Following his return to England. Henry died less than two years after the attack on Boulogne, in January 1547. thirty-eight … months From April 1509 to January 1547, or thirty-seven years, nine months and some odd days. Windsor Burial site of Henry VIII, in St. George’s Chapel in Windsor Castle, with his third wife, Jane Seymour, who died giving birth to the future Edward VI. three famous sprigs Three of Henry’s children rose to the throne: Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. Edward VI Crowned in February 1547, three weeks after Henry’s death. Only nine years of age, he ruled under the protectorship of his great uncle, duke of Somerset (Hoak). he did … undone A famously pious king, the young Edward VI continued his father’s active turn from Rome. given … book Heavily inclined to reading the bible. brought … service Oversaw extended reforms of the Church of England, including the 1549 introduction of the Book of Common Prayer, under the influence of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. This reform, essentially standardizing language, was used in services across England, and saw responsive armed rebellions. six … months From February 1547 to July 1553. Edward was buried in the Henry VII Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey. Next after him This chronology omits Lady Jane Grey, whom Edward VI named heir in reaction to his sister Mary’s Catholicism. Jane was proclaimed queen, but within nine days her claim was overridden by her cousin, Mary I. As she was not actually crowned, and reference would recall Edward’s attempts to disinherit his sisters, there is little wonder this detail was omitted. Mary Queen Mary was crowned first queen regnant of England in October 1553. Mary’s efforts in reversing progress in advancing Protestantism included the burning of dissenters and left her the posthumous sobriquet Bloody Mary (Weikel). Aside from the omission of Jane, this is perhaps the most noteworthy inclusion, because, as Walsh notes: given that promoting the Protestant Elizabethan order was one of the putative reasons for which the Queen’s Men were formed, it is curious that Mary, in this post-Acts and Monuments, and probably post-Armada, play, is mentioned with no virulence—this despite her bloody reputation with Protestants and her marriage to the King of Spain. (99) married Philip Mary’s marriage to the Spanish Philip was unpopular and led to the belief that England would lose footing in Europe if seen as dependent on Spain. The marriage was ultimately fruitless, spoiling Mary’s hopes of passing the throne past her half-sister, Elizabeth (Weikel). five … months From October 1553 to November 1558. Despite her desire to be buried alongside her father in Windsor, Mary was interred at Westminster Abbey in her grandfather’s chapel, and later shared a tomb with her half-sister, Elizabeth I. Mother Queen The Mother Queen speaks the remaining lines, praises to her character’s granddaughter, Elizabeth I. Griffin notes: of these final lines, the basic purport is flattery; but in terms of temporal experience, these lines serve to bring the history down to the present moment, with its triumphs and its fears. profits in a special way from the theatre practice of the actors’ calling for a prayer for the health of the monarch; intentionally or not, the prayer then forms the requisite reinforcement of the link to the present. (90) mirror in Exemplar of ( mirror, v.1.a). Note contrast to mirror imagery Shore’s wife uses (see ). her country … defended After the upheaval of Mary’s reign, Elizabeth presided over a remarkable period of growth and calm, and solidified Protestantism in England. Elizabeth survived numerous assassination attempts and reigned during the failed Spanish Armada in 1588. for ay Forever. The wish for Elizabeth to live forever is described by Bezio as either wishful thinking or pandering so transparent that it cannot help but draw focus (74). happy … isles Happy be England above the rest of Europe. favorable planets Auspicious omens, positive influences ( planet, n.2). prosperity Good fortune, well being ( prosperity, n.1). lamp Guiding light ( lamp, n.1.3). proud Antichrist Chief enemy or opponent of Christ ( Antichrist, n.1.a); the Pope or Papal power. Along with a generic anti-Catholic statement, this incorporates the Spanish Armada, defeated in 1588. hath … means Is the reason why. hairy Thrommed, rough, or hearie, (Thomas, Irto); rugged (Florio, Pillóso), both refer to thrummed cloth, densely woven with a nap or shaggy surface, and used for various items including stockings, long hose, rugs, and hats ( thrummed, adj.1.1.a) presumably for its weatherproof properties. This unusual word-choice strikes Urban as an absurdity, arising from some gross misprint. We think it not improbably that the original line was intended to stand as follows, Then England kneele in praier upon thy knee (365). Alternately, Mott assumes only literal kneeling in deference to Elizabeth, with little mind given to hair (66). McMillin and MacLean describe this phrase as astonishing and foolish (136, 137), but their preference is to dismiss hairy as a weak anomaly rather than search for a compositor’s error. In fact, it was an accepted word in clothmaking circles since at least 1535 ( hairy, adj.2.b). The Turk The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, also called the Great Turk, who sent Elizabeth many gifts through his ambassadors; she sent him an elaborate organ with extra sounds like chimes of birdsong. See John Mole, (2012), containing the diary of Thomas Dallam who accompanied this instrument in its voyage from London to Constantinople in 1599, and stayed about a year there teaching members of the court how to play it. Mott notes friendly diplomatic relations between England and Turkey in the years after the Armada, and credits Harborne, English ambassador in Constantinople, as responsible for spreading Elizabeth’s fame. Subsequent Turkish emissaries to England were warm and complimentary (67–68). babies in Jewry Although Jews were expelled from England in the 13th century, by Elizabeth’s day they were allowed to return as merchants of various kinds, musicians, and other specialized workers, like the Queen’s own physician, provided they kept their religion secret, and publicly practiced Christianity. The hardship of such a life for Jews is clear in Shakespeare’s and Marlowe’s . rumored … fame Talked about far and wide. never … hand An oath of peace. Mott notes June 1580 correspondence in which Turkey’s Imperial Musselmanlike Highness, Zuldan Murad Chan, writes: We have contracted an inviolable amity, peace and league with Elizabeth (68). In the following years, this relationship was further burnished after the defeat of the Spanish Armada: the Turk saw that event as a catalyst for opening up the Mediterranean for trade from the east. wrong Injure, oppose ( wrong, v.1.a). vain Pointless, useless ( vain, adj.1.a). tell the care Describe the troubles. peace proclaimed The notion of peace is the predominant theme in this speech, both domestically and internationally. Mott observes that conflict between the peace party and the war party at Elizabeth’s court is well known, and also the Queen’s usual desire to avoid costly foreign complications. At the close of the year 1589 she was especially so disposed (69) after a series of costly international mishaps, including Sir Francis Drake’s disastrous privateering raid on Portugal, and the ill-advised support of the earl of Essex. Geneva, … Flanders The English invested money, men, and intelligence in the Netherlands, and sent troops to aid the Dutch rebels as they rose up against their Spanish king, Philip II. The English also helped to aid in other fights against their Catholic enemies, including aiding Henry of Navarre against Philip’s French allies. By 1602, there were up to eight thousand English troops fighting in the Netherlands. Elizabeth’s help to the war-oppressed was too frequent to isolate to a specific incident in Flanders or Geneva, which received Elizabeth’s aid for over twenty years. As to France, Any such recognition of English help must have been after the death of Henry III, August 2, 1589. To Henry of Navarre, who thereupon became king, Elizabeth sent money and supplies (Mott 70). set down Written to thank her for. her life … away She dies. Your hope … depend A conventional line of praise for the queen to end the play on a happy note.