Witchcraft and Women

The witch hunts of early modern Europe were the most extreme example of the misguided and irrational nature of religion, according to historian Merry Wiesner-Hanks. These witch hunts and prosecutions often showcase early modern Europe’s problematic attitude towards women. From the 1560s to the 1690s, experts such as Teofilo Ruiz report that 80,000-100,000 women, typically elderly, were accused and executed for witchcraft by hanging or burning. People believed these women were committing maleficia, which refers to a someone who uses magic to do evil things. Most of early modern society also believed witches engaged in sexual activities with the devil, in addition to stealing unbaptized babies to use in rituals, flying through the night to secret meetings called sabbats, and using curses and spells to harm or even murder others.

Some early modern writers claimed that people who practiced witchcraft were a part of a much larger conspiracy to overthrow Christianity, resulting in witches being seen as the enemies of God and the church. Witchcrafts was a type of heresy. However, a large majority of accused witches were single women who came from the poorest level of society, leading historians to argue that accusations of witchcraft may have been influenced by economic factors. During the early modern period, many of the people accused of witchcraft often closely fit the Halloween and Hollywood stereotype of a witch: older women who were unmarried and deemed socially deviant (Wiesner-Hanks 287).

Animal Familiars

Many of the accused witches were rumored to have an animal familiar to assist them in committing maleficia. Familiars were often thought to be toads or dogs, rather than the modern stereotype of a black cat. Familiars were believed to be given by the devil, usually taking the form of a small animal. These familiars, although evil and demonic, often took a mundane form such as cats, dogs, mice, and toads. Familiars were considered to be any animal that could be commonly found as a household pet. This made it incredibly easy for women to be accused of witchcraft, as sometimes even the presence of a cat or toad in the accused witch’s house could be enough for a death sentence.

The witch’s familiar played a crucial role in early modern witch trials. These relationships between human witch and his or her familiar were seen as the embodiment of a demonic pact. The familiar was essentially the tie that brought together the witch and the devil, however, rather than being unwitting acomplices, familiars were considered demonic creatures with their own agency who sometimes encouraged the witch to do evil and practice maleficia.

Familiars in Witch Trials

Many documented cases exist of accused witches confessing to having a familiar or being in contact with the devil in the form of a household pet. Ina 1645 trial, an accused witch, Helen Clark confesseth that about six weeks since, the devil appeared to her in her home in the likeness of a white dog (Murray 101). In another trial against Agnes Waterhouse in the Essex village of Hatfield Peverell 1566, Waterhouse told prosecutors how she had harmed farm animals, murdered her husband, and kept a pet cat named Sathan to assist her in accomplishing these evils. These documented cases of witch’s familiars from early modern witch trials showcase the crucial role these demonic animals played in the witch hunts and highlights their significance in the public’s fear, which ultimately led to the deaths of thousands of people across Europe.

Toads

In early modern England, the toad held a similarly common position in witchcraft prosecutions. When John Walsh was tried in 1566, court records mention he used toads as familiars. And of course, the opening scene of Shakespeare’s features a reference by the second Weird Sister to Paddock, her toad familiar, who summons her away. The toad is an incredibly mundane creature, however its unappealing appearance and reputation of being dirty made it the perfect sidekick for God-hating and devious witches.

This perception persisted across Europe. The early modern Spanish community of Navarre has an especially strong example of toads as familiars. Navarre experienced reports of an increasing number of witches around 1610, accompanied by claims stating that the devil was hosting initiation ceremonies where he gave newly initated witches a toad dressed in men’s clothing. Described as a demon in the form of a toad with its face like a man’s, dressed in finely tailored velvet and cloth (Rojas 719), the animals acted as the new witch’s familiar. Some historians argue that people believed these toads were used to keep the new witches doing the work of the devil. The toads would assist the witches, and in return, the witches fed their familiars with human flesh.

The toad stands out amongst other animal familiars because its venomous property was mentioned regularly in classical, medieval, and early modern natural histories and bestiaries. Physicians throughout Europe were fascinated by the toad’s potential vices and virtues, which may have led to the toad being so commonly associated with witchcraft. Although there were witch trials and witness testimonies that included all sorts of animal familiars, toads appear in over half of Navarre’s local witch trial records.

Sources Rojas, Rochelle. , vol. 51, no. 3, Fall 2020, pp. 719–740. Wiesner-Hanks, Merry. , 4th ed. Cambridge UP, 2019.

Open-Access Digital Resources Gibson, Marion . Jul. 2021, https://www.essexrecordofficeblog.co.uk/the-trial-of-agnes-waterhouse-witchcraft-in-essex-1566/. Accessed 11 Feb. 2026. Parish, Helen. vol. 10, no. 134, 2019. doi: doi.org/10.3390/rel10020134. Ruiz, Teofilo. . Public lecture, University of California at Los Angeles, 28 Feb. 2007. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LOQND4fVF_w. Accessed 11 Feb. 2026.